Thursday 11/29 Collect Lab data from yesterday, complete data analysis/tables Cell Cycle/Mitosis Control Notes (finish Mon) Cell Cycle, Mitosis, & Control (Chp.12) Quiz will be TUESDAY (short Quiz ~10 questions) Then we will start Chp.13 Meiosis & complete lab Next week Friday will be TEST over Chp.12&13 together

Review Cells must either reproduce or they die. Cells that can not reproduce and are destined to die are terminal cells (red blood, nerve cells, muscles cells etc.). The "life of a cell" is termed the cell cycle as there are distinct phases. They are G1, S, G2, M

This graph represents the amount of DNA found in the cell during the cell cycle A –G1 B- S C- G2 D- Mitosis

Frequency of cell division Frequency of cell division varies by cell type embryo cell cycle < 20 minute skin cells divide frequently throughout life 12-24 hours cycle liver cells retain ability to divide, but keep it in reserve divide once every year or two mature nerve cells & muscle cells do not divide at all after maturity permanently in G0 G2 S G1 M metaphase prophase anaphase telophase interphase (G1, S, G2 phases) mitosis (M) cytokinesis (C) C

Checkpoint control system Start chp.12 Lecture 3 – Cell Cycle Control Checkpoint control system Checkpoints cell cycle controlled by STOP & GO chemical signals at critical points signals indicate if key cellular processes have been completed correctly

Checkpoint control system 3 major checkpoints: G1/S can DNA synthesis begin? G2/M has DNA synthesis been completed correctly? commitment to mitosis MPF (mitosis promoting factor) spindle checkpoint are all chromosomes attached to spindle? can sister chromatids separate correctly? APC (anaphase promoting complex)

G0 phase – if cells do not pass G1/S checkpoint non-dividing, differentiated state most human cells in G0 phase liver cells in G0, but can be “called back” to cell cycle by external cues nerve & muscle cells highly specialized arrested in G0 & can never divide

Internal control of the cell cycle: Controlled by “signal molecules”. must be phosphorylated in order to work. Below is a simple model of how this could occur.

This kinase represents the inactive form. Kinases are proteins (enzymes) that phosphorylate these chemical signals & trigger the cell cycle phases. This kinase represents the inactive form. This kinase has two active forms S-form or the M-form phosphorylate different chemical signals. OR

 inactive kinase (no cyclin attached) Cell cycle kinases must be activated by molecules called cyclins.  inactive kinase (no cyclin attached) The kinases are called cyclin-dependent-kinases (Cdk) because it needs cyclin to be phosphorylated.  two different cyclins This represents what happens when  cyclins are present.

As the cell goes through the cell cycle: Different cyclins are made to activate the various Cdks. Once the kinase is activated, the cyclin is destroyed which deactivates the kinase. Kinases are not destroyed, they are only activated or deactivated.

The cell cycle begins. The cell has a certain amount of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks). The cell begins to make the S cyclin.

The S-cyclin activates the Cdk.

The Cdk complex phosphorylates the S-signal which initiates the S-phase to start once it gets to a critical level.

Once the S-signal is phosphorylated, it leaves. the S-cyclin is destroyed the kinase returns to the inactive state. When there is enough S-signal, then the S-phase will begin.

Now the Cdk is inactive, and the cell begins to make the M-cyclin.

The M-cyclin activates the Cdk.

Cdk complex phosphorylates the M-signal initiates the M-phase to start once it gets to a critical level. This complex is called the mitosis-promoting-factor (MPF).

Once the M-signal is phosphorylated, it leaves. M-cyclin is destroyed kinase returns to the inactive state. When there is enough M-signal, then the M-phase will begin.

Various cyclins are made & destroyed throughout the cell cycle whereas the level of cell division kinases remain constant. Kinases however are activated by various cyclins and the activity are mirrored by the rise and fall of cyclins.

Fluctuations in concentration of cyclins allow for cell cycle checkpoints. The three major check points are G1/S , G2/M and Spindle checkpoints. These checkpoints have build-in-stop signals that hold the cell cycle at the checkpoint until overridden by go-ahead signals. This is a textbook’s diagram of how cyclins and kinases in the cell cycle work.

Often the G1 check point or "restriction point" in mammalian cells seems to be the most important one. If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at this check-point, it will complete the cell cycle and divide. However, if the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal in G1, the switches to a nondividing state called G0.

How Cdks actually work is not well understood but the Cdks seem to activate other proteins and enzymes that affect particular steps in the cycle. Stop Day 1

Friday 11/30 Cell Cycle/Mitosis Control Notes (finish) Cell Cycle, Mitosis, & Control (Chp.12) Quiz will be TUESDAY (short Quiz ~10 questions) HOMEWORK: Chp.13 Meiosis Guided Reading  DUE Monday! Next week we will start Chp.13 Meiosis & complete lab Next week Friday will be TEST over Chp.12&13 together

External Signals-This include certain chemical and physical factors that affect cell division. Mammalian cells need certain nutrients and regulatory proteins or growth factors are needed for cell division. For example, when the skin has been damage (wound), platelets release a substance called platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). This growth factor stimulate fibroblast cells to start to reproduce and make scar tissue.

External signals can effect how cells grow in culture. Density-dependent inhibition- cells in culture stop dividing when they become crowded forming a single layer of cells. It seems that when crowded, there is insufficient growth factor produced and nutrients for cell division to continue. Anchorage dependence- mammalian cells need to be attached to substratum like the inside of a culture jar or other tissue in order to reproduce. This phenomenon is linked to a control system attached to the plasma membrane proteins and the cytoskeleton. These phenomenon keep the growth of tissue in check. Cancer cells do not exhibit density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence.

External signals Growth factors coordination between cells protein signals released by body cells that stimulate other cells to divide density-dependent inhibition crowded cells stop dividing each cell binds a bit of growth factor not enough activator left to trigger division in any one cell anchorage dependence to divide cells must be attached to a substrate “touch sensor” receptors

Growth factor signals growth factor cell division cell surface nuclear pore nuclear membrane P P cell division cell surface receptor Cdk protein kinase cascade P E2F P chromosome Rb P E2F cytoplasm Rb nucleus

Example of a Growth Factor Platelet Derived Growth Factor (PDGF) made by platelets in blood clots binding of PDGF to cell receptors stimulates cell division in connective tissue heal wounds Erythropoietin (EPO): A hormone produced by the kidney that promotes the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow. EPO is a glycoprotein (a protein with a sugar attached to it). The kidney cells that make EPO are specialized and are sensitive to low oxygen levels in the blood. These cells release EPO when the oxygen level is low in the kidney. EPO then stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red cells and thereby increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. EPO is the prime regulator of red blood cell production. Its major functions are to promote the differentiation and development of red blood cells and to initiate the production of hemoglobin, the molecule within red cells that transports oxygen. EPO has been much misused as a performance-enhancing drug (“blood doping”) in endurance athletes including some cyclists (in the Tour de France), long-distance runners, speed skaters, and Nordic (cross-country) skiers. When misused in such situations, EPO is thought to be especially dangerous (perhaps because dehydration can further increase the viscosity of the blood, increasing the risk for heart attacks and strokes. EPO has been banned by the Tour de France, the Olympics, and other sports organizations.

Growth Factors and Cancer Growth factors can create cancers proto-oncogenes normally activates cell division growth factor genes become oncogenes (cancer-causing) when mutated if switched “ON” can cause cancer example: RAS (activates cyclins) tumor-suppressor genes normally inhibits cell division if switched “OFF” can cause cancer example: p53

Cancer & Cell Growth Cancer is essentially a failure of cell division control unrestrained, uncontrolled cell growth What control is lost? lose checkpoint stops gene p53 plays a key role in G1/S restriction point p53 protein halts cell division if it detects damaged DNA options: stimulates repair enzymes to fix DNA forces cell into G0 resting stage keeps cell in G1 arrest causes apoptosis of damaged cell ALL cancers have to shut down p53 activity p53 is the Cell Cycle Enforcer p53 discovered at Stony Brook by Dr. Arnold Levine

p53 — master regulator gene NORMAL p53 p53 allows cells with repaired DNA to divide. p53 protein DNA repair enzyme p53 protein Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 DNA damage is caused by heat, radiation, or chemicals. Cell division stops, and p53 triggers enzymes to repair damaged region. p53 triggers the destruction of cells damaged beyond repair. ABNORMAL p53 abnormal p53 protein cancer cell Step 1 Step 2 DNA damage is caused by heat, radiation, or chemicals. The p53 protein fails to stop cell division and repair DNA. Cell divides without repair to damaged DNA. Step 3 Damaged cells continue to divide. If other damage accumulates, the cell can turn cancerous.

Development of Cancer Cancer develops only after a cell experiences ~6 key mutations (“hits”) unlimited growth turn on growth promoter genes ignore checkpoints turn off tumor suppressor genes (p53) escape apoptosis turn off suicide genes immortality = unlimited divisions turn on chromosome maintenance genes promotes blood vessel growth turn on blood vessel growth genes overcome anchor & density dependence turn off touch-sensor gene It’s like an out-of-control car with many systems failing!

What causes these “hits”? Mutations in cells can be triggered by UV radiation chemical exposure radiation exposure heat cigarette smoke pollution age genetics

Tumors Mass of abnormal cells Benign tumor Malignant tumor abnormal cells remain at original site as a lump p53 has halted cell divisions most do not cause serious problems & can be removed by surgery Malignant tumor cells leave original site lose attachment to nearby cells carried by blood & lymph system to other tissues start more tumors = metastasis impair functions of organs throughout body

Traditional treatments for cancers Treatments target rapidly dividing cells high-energy radiation kills rapidly dividing cells chemotherapy stop DNA replication stop mitosis & cytokinesis stop blood vessel growth

New “miracle drugs” Drugs targeting proteins (enzymes) found only in cancer cells Gleevec treatment for adult leukemia (CML) & stomach cancer (GIST) 1st successful drug targeting only cancer cells Proof of Principle: you can treat cancer by targeting cancer-specific proteins. GIST = gastrointestinal stromal tumors, which affect as many as 5,000 people in the United States CML = chronic myelogenous leukemia, adult leukemia, which affect as many as 8,000 people in the United States Fastest FDA approval — 2.5 months Novartes without Gleevec with Gleevec

***Cell Cycle & Cancer Movie Any Questions?? ***Cell Cycle & Cancer Movie 2008-2009

Extra slides

Three major checkpoints G1/S (R point) checkpoint is the primary determining factor for cell division to take place. Growth factors are affecting the cell cycle, and cells are growing. Once the R point is passed the DNA is going to be replicated. If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at this check-point, it will complete the cell cycle and divide. However, if the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal in G1, the switches to a nondividing state called G0.

2. This checkpoint represents the commitment for starting the process of mitosis. This checkpoint also ensures that the DNA has been replicated correctly. If the DNA has been damaged, then the cell does not continue to mitosis. Once the Cdk and cyclin combine, it is called “mitosis promoting factor” or MPF. 3. The M/ spindle check point ensures that all the chromosomes are attached to the spindle in preparation of mitosis. The separation of the chromatids are irreversible. Once chromatids are replicated they are held together by a protein substance called cohesion protein. Another protein called seperase will destroy this protein. Seperase is inhibits or unable to destroy cohesion because of third protein called securin. So in effect the APC (anaphase promoting complex) activates securin, which actives an enzyme seperase to destroy cohesion. In many cells this occurs

during anaphase, however in vertebrates, all of the cohesion is removed during chromatid condensation except the cohesion at the centromeres. Once the cohesion is completely removed, then the tension of the microtubules cause the separation of the chromatids. APC also destroys cyclins in order to drive the cell out of mitosis.