Physics 117B02 — March 22 “Ray Optics: Reflection, Refraction, Polarization”

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Previous lecture: Chapter 32 Major theme: electromagnetic waves o Predicted by Maxwell, verified by Hertz o Radiation from accelerated charges (e.g., dipoles) o Harmonic (sinusoidal) disturbance of E and B fields o Travel with speed c in vacuum, c/n in matter o in vacuum, in matter o EM waves transport energy and momentum o Poynting vector gives power/unit area Applications o Solar heating, laser cutting, welding, surgery o Radiation pressure (e.g., solar “wind”)

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Today’s lecture: Chapter 33 Major themes: reflection, refraction, polarization o Rays and wavefronts: Huygens’ principle o Reflection and scattering from interfaces o Dispersion and total internal reflection (rainbows) o Refraction of transmitted rays at interfaces o Polarization effects due to reflection and scattering Applications o Why the sky looks blue (Rayleigh scattering) o Why double rainbows exhibit reversed colors o Why cataracts cause blurred vision o Telecommunication through optical fibers o Medical endoscopes and fiberscopes

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Terminology Light rays travel perpendicular to phase fronts Each point on wave front acts as source of secondary spherical or circular “wavelets” … and Phase fronts are the tangents to those spheres or circles (Huygens’ principle)

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Limits of ray optics When observing EM waves at great distances from their source, it is useful to assume that light travels in a straight line (perpendicular to the wavefronts) unless it encounters an obstacle.

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Specular vs diffuse Light incident on smooth reflecting surfaces is reflected at a specular angle; if the surface is rough, the light scatters in many directions from the asperities in the surface, and there is both specular and diffuse reflection.

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Fermat’s principle: reflection Fermat’s idea was that light follows the geometrical path that minimizes the transit time. Consider the case of reflection from a surface in air. The total transit time from point A to point B is The minimum travel time is found by taking the derivative with respect to y and setting it equal to zero: And that implies the law of reflection. QED!

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 The critical angle for TIR Consider light incident from glass (n=1.5) to air (n=1.0) at several different angles (see figure). Snell’s law relates the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction.   15˚ 25˚ 35˚ 45˚??? At the critical angle …

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Application of TIR: prisms EXAMPLES Cameras Binoculars Periscopes High-power laser beams Can you think of others? Total internal reflection in glass or crystalline quartz prisms are frequently used in optical systems instead of mirrors. The prisms below all are cut at angles of 45˚ and 90˚. Why?

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Optical fibers Why communicate with light? (in a word, bandwidth!) Added advantage: not subject to electrical interference Fiber transmission works because of total internal reflection at core-cladding interface Fibers can support multiple transmission paths (multi- mode) or only one (single-mode)

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 How are fibers made? A triumph of modern materials science and engineering! Requires exquisite purity and precision during the melting and drawing process… While making the fibers economically by the ton

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Polarization by Polaroid ® Polarizers work by preferred direction of absorption Long, stringy molecules work for visible light If you have owned a pair of polarizing sunglasses … Have you noticed a change in brightness of sky when you put them on? What does this mean? Malus’s law for polarized light passing through a polarizer-analyzer pair

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Polarization by reflection Reflections can polarize light that was initially not polarized … (Brewster’s angle) Since scattering is a form of reflection, what happens to polarized light scattered from a rough surface? Then why is it smart to wear polarizing sunglasses when driving in bright sunlight? The Brewster angle …

Physics 117B— March 22, 2006 Summing up … Light rays travel in straight lines until they run into something Even when they bump into something, light rays travel the path that takes the shortest time In material media (e.g., glass) the speed of light depends on its color (dispersion) When light is reflected from, scattered from or transmitted through a surface, it may be polarized The degree of polarization caused by reflection depends on the angle of incidence