Definitions & Distinctions Bilingualism Definitions & Distinctions

Minimal and Maximal Incipient bilingualism – minimal competence in a second language (e.g. tourists phrases and words) “Native-like control” of two or more languages (Blomfield, 1933)

Balanced Bilingualism Monolingual/Fra ctional view: “two monolinguals” in one person. Holistic view: the bilingual has a unique linguistic profile; not the sum of two complete/incom plete monolinguals. Balanced bilingual – someone who has “appropriate” competence in both languages. But it is a term that has raised a lot of questions and is difficult to define. Who judges who is a balanced bilingual? Who is judged normal, proficient, competent? For the time being, this term is useful in research as a starting point for how to explore the spectrum of bilingualism. Two contrasting views of individual bilinguals: 1) Monolingual/Fractional view of bilinguals: evaluates the bilingual as “two monolinguals in one person” 2) Holistic view – the bilingual is not the sum of two complete or incomplete monolinguals, but that he or she has a unique linguistic profile.

Balance Theory Separate Underlying Proficiency: Two languages operating separately Common Underlying Proficiency: Language attributes cross both languages like an exchange between the two.

Common Underlying Proficiency Model Two languages are visibly different, but underneath both languages operate through the same central processing system (may be summarized in 6 parts).

Semilingualism/Double Semilingualism Bilingual ability described in terms of deficiencies when compared with monolinguals Term used pejoratively Semilinguals: display a small vocabulary and incorrect, consciously think about language production, stilted and uncreative with each language, and finds it difficult to think and express emotions in either language.

Stages of Bilingualism

Early Bilingualism Newborns prefer mother’s voice “Babbling Stage” (10-12m.) Babbles in stronger language Demonstrates language-specific babbling features. Infants exposed to two languages: May not babbly with context-specific accuracy but can demonstrate language specific babbling features Has a tendency to babbly in their stronger language Memory sounds even operate at the fetal stage – prefers mother’s voice With children of two years or earlier: Know which language to speak “to whom” and in “what situation” Easily switch languages and differentiate their two languages, but there is individual variation Genesee found that “appropriate language matching” is found in two year olds from bilingual homes when talking to strangers.” Children rapidly and accurately accommodated the monolingual or bilingualism of a stranger and talked in the appropriate language Sometimes, children who did mix up utterances, did so, because they had not yet learned the particular vocabulary word in that language.

Child’s Language Choice Parent’s attitudes to language choice and code-switching Language competencies and metalinguistic abilities Personality Peer interaction

Unitary Language System Storing Two Languages Unitary Language System Language 2 Language 1

Storing Two Languages (cont.) The two languages develop both autonomously and inter- dependently, and this is partly a function of transfer between types of language combination (e.g. French-English compared with Mandarin-English) – Genesee (2001)

The Thresholds Theory There is a relationship between cognition and degree of bilingualism, and that the further a child moves towards balanced bilingualism, the greater the likelihood of cognitive advantages (e.g. Toukomaa & Skutnabb- Kangas, 1977; Cummins, 1976).

Threshold Illustrations

Later Development of Bilingualism

Reasons for Second Language Learning Societal Assimilationist and subtractive (language minority students learning English in the U.S.) Preservationist (e.g. Maori in NZ, Irish/Gaelic in England, Basque in Spain) Increase harmony between language groups (e.g. Canada)

Reasons (cont.) Encourages economic and trade reasons (e.g. Singapore, China, Scandinavia) Interactions across continents (e.g. European countries, Central & South American) Promotes intercultural understanding and peace (September 11, 2001)

Reasons (cont.) Individual Promotes cultural awareness Promotes cognitive development Promotes affective attributes (moral development, self-awareness, self- confidence, and social and ethical values) Promotes facility toward career and employment

High School ELL Class

The Age Factor Younger second language learners are neither more globally aware nor less efficient and successful than older learners in second language acquisition Children who learn a second language in childhood do tend to achieve higher levels of proficiency than those who begin after childhood. In a formal classroom situation, older learners tend to learn quicker than younger learners. However the length of exposure (# of years of L2) is an important factor in language success.

Three Perspectives on Language Language as a problem: Causes deficiency in learning Personality and social problems Causes disunity in the political arena (language is rarely the cause of conflict/strife)

Perspectives (cont.) Language is a basic human right Language rights concern protection from discrimination (e.g. Native Americans, Maori) Language rights are derived from personal, human, legal, and constitutional right.

Perspective (cont.) Language is a natural resource Promotes foreign trade, world influence, even peace Bilingualism is an asset to both community and individual.