Chapter 5 frontispiece. A dust plume from an intense dust storm over the Sahara E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Photograph by Jacques Descloitres, NASA 046

Figure 5.1. The spring Sun in the Arctic E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Photograph by Rear Admiral H.D. Nygren, NOAA 047

Figure 5.2. Variations in total annual and solstice insolations with latitude E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Hartmann,

E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Hartmann, 1994 Figure 5.3. The flow of energy from the Sun to Earth and between the surface and the atmosphere 049

E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Hartmann, 1994 Figure 5.3. The flow of energy from the Sun to Earth and between the surface and the atmosphere 049

E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Hartmann, 1994 Table 5.1. Albedo of various surfaces SurfaceTypical Albedo (%) Deep water, low wind, low latitude7 Deep water, high wind, high latitude12 Moist dark soil10 Moist gray soil15 Dry soil, desert30 Wet sand25 Dry light sand35 Asphalt pavement7 Concrete pavement20 Short green vegetation17 Dry vegetation25 Coniferous forest12 Deciduous forest17 Forest with snow cover25 Sea ice, no snow cover30 Old, melting snow50 Dry, cold snow70 Fresh, dry snow80 050

Figure 5.4. Changes in global mean radiative forcings, E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Forster et al.,

Figure 5.5. Contributions of different greenhouse gases to radiative forcing E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Data from Forster et al.,

Figure 5.6. Spectral characteristics of the Sun and Earth’s atmosphere E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Rohde, Global Warming Art 053

Figure 5.7. Scanning electron microscope images of various aerosols E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Photographs by V. Martins, NASA 054

Figure 5.8. Global distribution of aerosols, 2006 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Reto Stöckli, NASA 055

Table 5.2. Model estimates of the direct effects of aerosols on radiative forcing E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Forster et al., 2007 Sulfate (sulfuric acid via sulfur dioxide from fossil-fuel burning) -0.4 ± 0.20 Organic carbon (from fossil-fuel and biomass burning) ± 0.05 Black carbon (from incomplete fossil-fuel combustion)+0.20 ± 0.15 Smoke (compounds from forest fires)+0.03 ± 0.12 Nitrates (ammonium, from ammonia and NO x emissions) ± 0.10 Anthropogenic dust (agriculture, cement production, drying soils) -0.1 ± 0.20 All aerosols combined, direct effects ± 0.40 Increase in cloud albedo due to aerosols -0.3 to -1.8 Radiative forcing (watts per square meter) 056 Aerosol

Figure 5.9. Stratospheric aerosol before and on several occasions after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, June 15, 1991 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: NASA 057

Figure Sunspots observed during a cycle of high sunspot activity, March 30, 2001 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: SOHO/MDI Consortium 058