PIET VAN AVERMAET CENTRE FOR INTERCULTURAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF GHENT, BELGIUM MIGRANTS AND LANGUAGE(S) OF EDUCATION. THE CASE OF FLANDERS Kraków, Poland, April 27-29, 2006

“Migrant children are well behind in their language proficiency” Interesting quote from a multilingual and plurilingual perspective

Socially disadvantaged learners Often migrant children are well behind when it comes to the dominant language. We define them as socially disadvantaged learners. A lack of knowledge, proficiency and attitudes in the LE.

Role of education? School/education has to do something in relation to this: –No equal opportunities to profit from actual education (system) –Socio-cultural, socio-economical background determines to what extent one can benefit School should compensate for society and social background. School should be organised in such a way that children can meet minimal goals instead of a meritocratic approach. Differences (also in performance) is not a problem as such. It is the way we deal with differences. Eliminating one difference (often seen as deficit) often replaces it by another.

How different can a language of education set of final objectives or curriculum for migrants be from that of others? (WHY and WHAT?) oBoth low SES migrants and non-migrants need to be able to function at school and in society. In that, they do not differ from non-migrants with a high SES. oThis implies that every individual needs to be able to meet/acquire the same final objectives of language(s) of education with respect to knowledge, skills and attitudes. Differences in outcomes and curriculum can occur according to the contextual needs (i.e. the kind of programme one follows). E.g. a stronger focus can be on vocational language in a vocational learning context, while a stronger focus can be on academic language in an academic learning context. This is not a difference in level but only in context. WHAT?

HOW? How does education have to look like in order to give all children the opportunity to profit from it? Psychological perspective (behaviourism): deficiencyremedy “Chomskyan” perspective: “what happens in a child's head?” The child as a “learning mechanism” In these theories and approaches the sociological perspective is often neglected

HOW? If we agree, however, that migrant children are socially disadvantaged learners, it is the social aspect of learning that has to taken more into account. Not only the child as a learning individual. But learning as a social process (Vygotsky, Brüner, …). The consequence/advantage is that “what?” and “how?” are far more closely related than in a purely psychological process of learning.

SOCIAL PROCESS OF LEARNING When we see education as a process of social construction, “structure” and “agency” are more intertwined. The individual in his social context: –Learning is based on interaction –What is (to be) learned emerges through interaction –The role of the teacher (mediator) as a partner in social interaction –Interaction is what all actors bring in. –Learning through communication, through experience and through transfer of experiences. –We can better deal with (e.g. socio-cultural determined) diversity –Children bringing in different backgrounds, perspectives, way of learning and learning experiences instead of one group of children having a deficiency whom “we” need to remedy.

The social and psychological aspects of (language) learning have to be combined in teaching LE and LAC oA functional approach of language learning oA contextualised approach oAn interaction based approach oA teaching methodology from which every child can benefit oAn approach in which language and culture (different social-cultural backgrounds) are maximally taken into account when teaching oA task-based approach (Long, 1985; 1997; Skehan, 1996; Van Den Branden & Van Avermaet, 2000; Norris et al., 2002; Ellis, 2003; Van Den Branden, 2006; Van Avermaet & Gysen, 2006; …) SOCIAL PROCESS OF LEARNING

FRAMEWORKS, COMPETENCIES, CURRICULA, ASSESSMENT TOOLS Who determines curriculum and final objectives or competencies? Is constructed and thus socially determined. As a consequence the effectiveness of education is socially determined.

FINAL OBJECTIVES Final objectives for language(s) of education are minimum goals in relation to knowledge, skills and attitudes, preferably for societal domains based on needs analysis. Minimum here means that what minimally is needed (i.e. essential) and for which a societal consensus exists, to guarantee participation in school and society. Final objectives need to be contextualised (content, (inter)cultural,…) into curriculum that is relevant for local situation. Both on the basis of interaction amongst all actors.

SURPLUS OF/NEED FOR DIVERSITY AND HETEROGENEITY When we see (language) learning as a process of social construction, diversity and heterogeneity is an advantage instead of a disadvantage. Putting migrant children in “pull-out classes” and provide separate curricula and tests brings us back to a purely psychological approach of (language) learning: the individual child who has a language deficit and who will be better of if we treat him separately in a homogeneous group of children with the same “problem”. We then neglect the social aspect and again want them to adapt to norms and values set by representatives of a specific social background. In line with research on the effectiveness of educational approaches to language minorities (Nicaise, 2001; Short & Boyson, 2004; Thomas & Collier, 2000, 2001, 2002), migrant children should be integrated in mainstream classes from kindergarten onwards. Instead of pull-out classes we advocate for additional pupil support within the mainstream classroom, cooperative learning in mixed ability groups and contextualized language learning.

Dealing with socially disadvantaged learners is in the first place being able to deal with diversity and heterogeneity in mainstream classrooms SURPLUS OF/NEED FOR DIVERSITY AND HETEROGENEITY

A TWO WAY APPROACH Second or third generation immigrant children Regular curriculum from the start (in Flanders from 2,5 years) and same objectives as non migrants. A priority policy with extra funds and other supporting mechanisms for schools who opt for an integrated approach is of vital importance. Separate classrooms and separate curricula can lead to stigmatisation of a group, is counter productive and at the end can lead to a dual society. POLICY IN FLANDERS

A TWO WAY APPROACH ‘Newcomers’ ‘Adapted’ objectives, curriculum and teaching programme. One year in separate class. Newcomers get as far as they can depending different factors (heterogeneous groups) ‘Developmental goals’ instead of ‘final objectives’ After one year ‘targeted’ language programme they go to the regular classroom: still extra scaffolding is given for those classes or schools (not separating newcomers from the rest of the classroom at certain moments in time) where these newcomers are then integrated: learning in functional situations and through interaction. POLICY IN FLANDERS

NEWCOMERS Developmental goals based on real needs of learner: situations in which he needs the language. Distinction between primary and secondary. 15 general objectives Made concrete in 4 relevant contexts: –Participating at school –Learning at school –Informal contacts in and outside school –Societal participation

NEWCOMERS Example General aim: The students understand a question or instruction formulated oral or written in order to (re)act adequately (i.e. Being able to answer the question or to act according to the instruction).

NEWCOMERS Example concrete: Participating at school –The students understand an oral question or instruction from another student, teacher or coach in relation to class- or school organisation. Learning at school –The students understand an oral question or instruction from another student or a teacher in relation to a topic of a teaching-leaning activity. Informal contacts in and outside school –The students understand an oral or written informal question or instruction from a peergroup member or a known adult. Societal participation –The students understand an oral or written informal question or instruction from a civil servant, an instructor,... (-) –The students understand safety instructions,... (+)

MULTILINGUAL CONTEXT AS RESOURCE FOR LEARNING

Monolingual nation states Most European nation states are de facto multilingual (regional & minority languages, immigrants, media, …). A variety of multilingual spaces. However: –Without knowledge of the national language one cannot function in society –Knowledge of the national language will open all doors to work, school, etc. –Immigrant languages are an obstacle to integration –Immigrant languages have a negative effect on the school and learning results of immigrant children –… These are ideological assumptions. There is hardly any empirical evidence.

“good” and “bad” multilingualism (1/2) “selective” multilingualism –European space: ‘good’ multilingualism added value and surplus Extra qualifications Is needed, a must in a globalising world Promoted

“selective” multilingualism –Multilingual spaces in European cities: ‘bad’ multilingualism Is problematic Not recognised, no value at work, school, street Seen as an obstacle in process of acquisition of dominant language, participation and integration Adapt to a monolingual policy and discourse Promotion of monolingualism: norm At the same time at school: discourse and policy of surplus of multilingualism: French, English, German, … “good” and “bad” multilingualism (2/2)

Reality of ‘bad’ multilingualism (1/2) Example ‘Rabot in Ghent’ (ethnographic research) ‘Migrants have a language deficit’ BUT, In neighbourhood functional and complex multilingualism ‘Task specific’ competences in many ‘languages’, also in dominant language: immediately relevant in specific contexts and important for social networks in neighbourhood Lack of other specific competences Most migrants ‘know’ the ‘dominant language’: proficient in specific repertoire that is demanded by specific tasks and not proficient in others. Similar to foreign students or higher educated people. Shift from dichotomous model to polycentric model: constant switches from variety to variety depending on context, interaction partner, topic,...

SO, Multilingualism of migrants is specifically organised and ‘Dutch’ has a specific place in that multilingual repertoire (Jaspers, 2004; 2005) No universal recipe to ‘remedy’ ‘language deficit’ for newcomers at school Reality of ‘bad’ multilingualism (2/2)

MULTILINGUAL CONTEXT AS RESOURCE FOR LEARNING Multilingualism is often seen as knowing, mastering several languages. Sometimes ‘full’ proficiency. Preferable term is ‘plurilingual repertoires’: repertoires is not about ‘languages’, they consist out of ‘parts/pieces of language’: genres, styles of language use, specific registers for certain domains or situations. We understand German, but writing is a problem. We speak English at conferences but getting the full picture of the menu at the ‘Fat Duck’ is a problem. We know just enough Italian to guide ourselves through a meal in Italy, but going to the theatre? The same goes for our mother tongue.

MULTILINGUAL CONTEXT AS RESOURCE FOR LEARNING We need more theory and empirical research for some assumptions that are now made. A theoretical rationale as a basis for the development of language policies, curriculum and test development: coherence and ‘building an argument’. Curricula or tests could be based on an accurate and realistic analysis of the needs and possibilities of the learner/user/candidate/… Curricula or tests to teach or measure the proficiency of the ‘official’ language(s) of a country or region can meet those parts of a multilingual repertoire of task specific competencies that are absent or are needed by a person.

We all to often provide people with a pair of roller-skates to protect themselves against the rain. Our major concern when it comes to frameworks, curricula and tests often seems to be a technical one –Is the course or the exam at the intended level? –How do I know that my …? –Looking for items/tests that are exactly at the same level Sometimes this technical approach seems to be counter productive and ignores what is really at stake: social cohesion of a multicultural society. MULTILINGUAL CONTEXT AS RESOURCE FOR LEARNING

In classrooms we observe a diversity of languages and language varieties. Education is about the development of competencies. Language is a major to tool for this purpose. However if we restrict ourselves to the standard language only as a medium of communication or only allow children to use the standard language to solve problems, to fulfil tasks in the classroom and not making use of different communication modes, we miss al kinds of opportunities in the development of children’s competencies.