2: Scholarly Communications System

Pre-modern academy Shangyang “Higher School” – Yu period ~2250 BCE Imperial Central School – Zhou dynasty ~ Plato’s Academy (founded 428 BCE) Aristotle’s Lyceum 335 BCE Library of Alexandria BCE Reverence for “scholarly knowledge” universal-local

Nalanda, Bihar, India ~427 to 1197

Nanking University

Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt, 988

Timbuktu

Modern university Late medieval->Early Enlightenment->Late Enlightenment University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, 1088 University of Paris, Paris, France, founded c University of Oxford, Oxford, England, before 1167 University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England, c University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain, 1218 Ruprecht Karls University of Heidelberg, Germany, 1386 University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany, 1409 University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey, 1453

(1660)

Académie des Sciences (1666)