16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World Chapter 16: Making the System Operational

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 2 Learning Objectives u Describe implementation and support activities u Choose an appropriate approach to program development u Describe various types of software tests, and explain how and why each is used

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 3 Learning Objectives ( continued ) u List various approaches to data conversion and system installation, and describe the advantages and disadvantages of each u Describe different types of documentation and the processes by which they are developed and maintained u Describe training and user support requirements for new and operational systems

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 4 Overview u This chapter focuses on activities of implementation and support phases of systems development life cycle (SDLC) u Implementation activities occur before system is turned over to users u Implementation consumes more time and resources than other phases of the SDLC u Support activities occur after system becomes operational and may continue for years

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 5 Activities of the Implementation and Support Phases

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 6 Program Development u Program development is time consuming l 1/3 of development labor (include unit testing) l 1/3 to 1/2 of project development schedule u Programming as one of the most important development activities from several factors: l Required resources l Managerial complexity l System quality

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 7 Order of Implementation u Input, process, output (IPO) development order l Based on data flow through system l Simplifies testing l User interfaces developed early to reduce change l Disadvantage is late implementation of outputs u Structured design – IPO order based on system flowchart and structure chart u OO design – IPO order in package diagrams

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 8 System Flowchart for a Payroll System (Figure 16-2)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 9 Package Diagrams for RMO Subsystems

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 10 Order of Implementation ( continued ) u Top-down and bottom-up order from traditional structured design and structured programming u Top-down begins with module at top of structure chart l Always a working version of program l Requires three or more iterations to complete u Bottom-up begins with modules at lowest level of structure chart l Many programmers can begin immediately l Requires driver programs to test

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 11 Structure Chart for the Payroll Program (Figure 16-3)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 12 Package Diagram for a Three-Layer OO Design Chapter 11 described an IPO order starting with a Controller and inputs to domain classes. Storyboarding the View layer might have occurred earlier. Designing and implementing View and Data access layers might occur simultaneously after Domain layer and might be handled by different teams.

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 13 Construction and Test Plan u Development order u Testing order u Data used to test modules, module groups, methods, classes, programs, and subsystems u Acceptance criteria u Relevant personnel assignments (construction and testing)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 14 Framework Development u When developing large OO systems, object frameworks or foundation classes are often constructed u Foundation classes typically implemented first l To minimize impact of errors and changes l Are reused in many parts of the system and across applications l Assigned to best programmers and thoroughly tested

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 15 Team-Based Program Development u Management issues in Team-based program development l Organization of programming teams l Task assignment to specific teams or members l Member and team communication and coordination u Variety of different models used for teams l Cooperating peer, chief developer, collaborative specialist

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 16 Comparison and Summary of Development Team Types (Figure 15-7)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 17 Source Code Control u Source code control system (SCCS) l Is an automated tool for tracking source code files and controlling changes to those files u Programmers can manipulate files in the repository as follows: l Check out file in read-only mode l Check out file in read/write mode l Check in a modified file

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 18 Versioning u Mechanism to manage systems changes u Complex systems developed, installed, and maintained in series of versions to simplify testing and support l Alpha version – incomplete but ready for some level of testing l Beta version – stable enough to be tested by end- users l Production release version – formally distributed to users or made operational l Maintenance release – bug fixes, small changes

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 19 Timeline of Test and Production Versions for RMO System (Figure 16-9)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 20 Description of Versions for RMO Customer Support System

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 21 Quality Assurance u Is the process of ensuring information system meets minimum quality standards u Determined by users, implementation staff, management u Identification of gaps or inconsistencies in system requirements u QA integrated into project throughout SDLC u Cost of fixing errors rise as project progresses

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 22 Technical Reviews u Formal or informal reviews of design or construction details by group of developers u Open design and construction process to input from other people u Other programmers can frequently see errors missed by original programmer u Similar to author writing and editor reviewing u Walkthroughs and inspections important because l Reduce number of errors by factor of 5 to 10 l Reduce testing costs by 50%

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 23 Testing u Process of examining a product to determine if any defects exist u Testing levels are related to specific SDLC phases u Testing activities spread throughout SDLC u Most of testing takes place following software construction and definition of defect standards

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 24 Generic Model of Software Testing (Figure 16-12)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 25 Correspondence Between SDLC Phases and Various Types of Testing (Figure 16-13)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 26 SDLC Phases and Testing Activities Performed Within Each Phase (Figure 15-14)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 27 Test Cases u Important part of testing is specifying test cases and test data u A test case is a formal description of l Starting state l Events to which software responds l Expected response or ending state u Analysis phase documentation is useful in preparing test cases (use-case driven) u Test data is defined to be used with a test case

16 Test Case Example Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 28

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 29 Unit Testing u Tests individual modules of code or methods before integrating with other software u Driver module used for testing l Sets values of input parameters l Calls module to be tested and passes input parameters l Accepts return parameters from tested module u Stub testing – test module simulates module not yet developed

16 Driver Module for Testing Calculate pay amount Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 30

16 Stub Module for Testing Calculate pay amount Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 31

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 32 Integration Testing u Tests the behavior of a group of modules or methods u Tests both normal processing and exceptions u Errors can include l Interface incompatibility l Incorrect parameter values l Run-time exceptions l Unexpected state interactions

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 33 System Testing u Tests the behavior of the entire system u Build and smoke test is performed daily to discover any problems with daily builds l System is completely compiled and linked each day l Battery of tests are run to smoke out problems l Any errors must be from changes made the prior day u Complete system testing also performed before acceptance testing

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 34 Usability Testing u Usability test is a test to determine whether a module, method, class, subsystem, or system meets user requirements l Focus is usually on ease of use u Performance test checks time-based requirements l Response time l Throughput u Acceptance test is system test performed to determine whether system meets user requirements

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 35 Data Conversion u Data needed at system startup from: l Files or databases of system being replaced l Manual records l Files or databases of other systems l User feedback during normal system operation u Reuse of existing databases u Reloading database contents u Creating new databases

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 36 Two Approaches to Reloading Database Content After a Structural Modification

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 37 A Complex Data- Conversion Example (Figure 16-19)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 38 Installation u After development and testing, system must be put into operation u Important planning considerations l Costs of operating both systems in parallel l Detecting and correcting errors in new system l Potentially disrupting the company and IS operations l Training personnel and customers with new procedures

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 39 Direct Installation and Cutover (Figure 16-20)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 40 Direct Installation u New system installed and quickly made operational u Overlapping systems turned off u Both systems concurrent for brief time u Advantage – simplicity and fewer logistics issues to manage u Disadvantage – risk due to no backup

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 41 Parallel Installation and Operation (Figure 16-21)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 42 Parallel Installation u Old and new systems operated together for extended period of time u Advantages – low risk of system failure and continual backup u Disadvantage – cost to operate both systems l Hiring temporary personnel l Acquiring extra space l Increasing managerial and logistical complexity

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 43 Phased Installation with Direct Cutover and Parallel Operation (Figure 16-22)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 44 Phased Installation u New system installed in series of steps or phases u Each phase adds components or functions to existing system u Advantage – reduces risk because phase failure is less serious than system failure u Disadvantage – multiple phases cause more activities, milestones, and management complexity for entire effort

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 45 Personnel Issues u Installing new system places demands on personnel l Demanding schedules l Rapid learning and adaptation l High stress u Planning should anticipate these risks and take measures to mitigate effects u Temporary and contract personnel may be hired during an installation

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 46 Documentation u Automated documentation is standard l Electronic manuals in MS Word or Adobe PDF format l Hyperlinked documents – Web-browser formatted l Online documentation on vendor Web site l Embedded documentation on CD l Electronic system model stored in graphic formats l Tool-specific system models developed with IDEs, DBMSs, and CASE tools

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 47 System Documentation u Descriptions of system functions, architecture, and construction details u Used by maintenance personnel and future developers u Generated as a by-product of development l Includes source code l Includes analysis and design models u Failure to maintain system documentation compromises value of a system

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 48 Life Cycle Phases and System Documentation Generated in Each Phase (Figure 16-23)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 49 User Documentation u Descriptions of how to interact with and maintain the system u Used by end users and system operators u Topics include l Startup and shutdown l Keystrokes, mouse, or command functions to perform specific functions l Program function for specific business procedures l Common errors and correction techniques

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 50 Training and User Support u Without training, user error rates will be high u Training considerations l Frequency and duration of system use l Need to understand system’s business context l Existing computer skills and proficiency l Number of users

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 51 Typical Activities of End Users and System Operators (Figure 16-25)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 52 Ongoing Training and User Support u User support covers training and user assistance that occurs after installation l Online documentation and troubleshooting l Resident experts l Help desk l Technical support

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 53 Maintenance and System Enhancement u Software Maintenance: Modification of software after delivery to correct faults, improve performance, or adapt the product to a changed environment. Maintenance activities: l Tracking modification requests and changes l Implementing changes l Monitoring system performance l Upgrading hardware and software l Updating documentation

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 54 Submitting Change Requests and Error Reports u Most organizations adopt formal change control procedures to manage change risks: l Standard change request forms l Review of requests by change control committee l Extensive planning for design and implementation u Approved changes are added to list of pending changes for budgeting, scheduling, planning, and implementation u A separate process is used for error correction

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 55 A Change Request Example (Figure 16-26)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 56 A Change Review Form (Figure 15-27)

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 57 Implementing a Change u Planning for a change includes l Identifying parts of system to change or add l Securing resources e.g. personnel to implement change l Scheduling design and implementation activities l Developing test criteria and test plan for changed system u System documentation is reviewed by design, development & operations staff to determine scope of change

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 58 Upgrading Computing Infrastructure u Infrastructure requires periodic updates because l Software maintenance releases l Software version upgrades l Declining system performance u Infrastructure includes computer hardware, system software, networks, DBMSs l Technical, complex, and risky l Outages can impact entire system

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 59 Summary u Implementation activities occur after design and before system is turned over to users u Implementation is complex l Interdependence of programming, quality assurance, hardware and software installation, documentation, and training u Implementation is difficult to manage l Activities must be properly sequenced l Progress must be continually monitored

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 60 Summary ( continued ) u Implementation is risky l Significant time and resources required l Often affects systems vital to daily operations u Software components constructed to l Minimize development resources needed l Maximize ability to test system and control errors l These goals often conflict: trade-off among resources, time, and desire to correct errors

16 Systems Analysis and Design in a Changing World 61 Summary ( continued ) u Data conversion, installation, documentation, and training follow programming and testing u Installed and documented system is prerequisite for complete training u Fully populated database needed to begin operation u Support activities occur after system becomes operational and might continue for years to support user requirements and reduce operational risk