Part 2: Imagery The other half of the same coin? 1 2

Cognitive Specific Imagery Generally mirrors the modeling results – imagery is better than nothing, not as good as physical practice Imagery therefore could also be seen as enhancing the idea, but would also require physical practice for calibration Mixed schedules have been quite effective in this regard 1

Cognitive Specific Imagery So, imagery, like modeling, sits at a level of the system between ideas and action How do these levels interact? Do images interact with declarative ideas, words? And if so, how? Do we “think” about images in the same way we think through a sentence? 1

3 Patient H.M. The split between declarative and procedural memory Tower of Hanoi puzzle (try it yourself - see 1 Intro to H.M. on wikipedia: 2

Modeling and Imagery The ALI (action-language-imagination) model (Annett, 1996) Perceptual processes Motor Processes Human Actions Verbal instructions Action Speech Perceptual processes Motor Processes Action- language bridge Retrieval of information about movements relies on imagery as a way of bridging the gap between the two sides of the system 1 2

1 Modeling and Imagery ALI model (Annett, 1996) captures... The potential separation of the verbal and motor memory systems – the two descending pathways can be completed without contact The potential use of declarative knowledge in guiding motor learning, at the upper (executive) level The possible use of no declarative knowledge in performing motor skills (left-hand side) The fact that the use of declarative knowledge is a “less direct” route to learning The benefits of using metaphor (something that conjures up images) to enhance the bridge between the upper levels The habit we have of performing the motor act in order to construct declarative knowledge of it (tell me what you do to tie your shoelace) The fact that presenting information both verbally and via demonstration can result in superior learning to either method alone (enhanced bridge – enhanced recall (Hall et al. 1997))

1 Modeling and Imagery This model, in effect, just adds some detail to our previous model from the demonstration slides…now different types of information have different entry points, but imagery is still at the core of it all. Perceptual processes Motor Processes Human Actions Verbal instructions Action Speech Perceptual processes Motor Processes Note that all this is incomplete. You can add all manner of findings. It’s my light contention though that they can all be squeezed quite nicely into this framework, and that the framework helps make sense of it all

1 Verbal Instructions and Cues Instructions Keep it simple (see previous slides) Use to direct attention to the effect of movement, not the movement itself (Prinz, 1997) Be aware that verbally directing attention at something that might be picked up unconsciously might harm performance (Green & Flowers, 1991) 2

1 Verbal Instructions and Cues Cues...recommendations Can be used along with a demo – as long as they don’t interfere with the attention needed to pick up coordination information Can be used to draw attention to critical parts of a skill (head-stand – ‘shoulders over knuckles’) Can be used while performing (Cutton & Landin, 1994, using Gallwey’s recommendations) Can even be used to help advanced players They can be used to either direct attention or prompt action

1 Another study to consider... Focus of attention Wulf, McNevin, & Shea (2001) A study designed to examine the different performance styles promoted through different verbal cues. 23

And a quote: It would seem indeed that we fail of accuracy and certainty in our attainment of the end whenever we are preoccupied with much ideal consciousness of the means. We walk a beam the better the less we think of the position of our feet upon it. We pitch or catch, we shoot or chop the better the less tactile and muscular (the less resident), and the more exclusively optical, (the more remote) our consciousness is. Keep your eye on the place aimed at, and your hand will fetch it; think of your hand, and you will very likely miss your aim. (James, 1890: 520)