European Society After the Second World War

Science and Technology For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively joined together on massive scale during WWII. For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively joined together on massive scale during WWII. British scientists developed radar to detect enemy aircraft. British scientists developed radar to detect enemy aircraft. Jet aircraft developed by Germany Jet aircraft developed by Germany Electronic computers further developed; had barely come into existence before Electronic computers further developed; had barely come into existence before Manhattan Project: Atomic bomb most spectacular result of scientific research during the war; project overseen by J. Robert Oppenheimer Manhattan Project: Atomic bomb most spectacular result of scientific research during the war; project overseen by J. Robert Oppenheimer

Big Science “Big Science” became new model for science after WWII “Big Science” became new model for science after WWII Combined theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large, often huge organization. Combined theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large, often huge organization. U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after WWII U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after WWII Science not demobilized after WWII either in U.S. or USSR Science not demobilized after WWII either in U.S. or USSR Large portion of all postwar scientific research went for “defense” (25%!) Large portion of all postwar scientific research went for “defense” (25%!)

The Space Race 1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an orbiting satellite using long-range rockets 1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an orbiting satellite using long-range rockets US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear missile into space and then down to U.S. US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear missile into space and then down to U.S. U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly increased educational funding for science. U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly increased educational funding for science. 1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit. 1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit. U.S. President John F. Kennedy responded by increasing funds for space. U.S. President John F. Kennedy responded by increasing funds for space. 1969, Apollo Program put first man on the moon; 5 more moon landings followed by , Apollo Program put first man on the moon; 5 more moon landings followed by 1972.

The Brain Drain “Brain Drain”: U.S. attracted many of Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the American Challenge “Brain Drain”: U.S. attracted many of Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the American Challenge Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind U.S. in science, technology, and most dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th century. Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind U.S. in science, technology, and most dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th century. Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Science projects: Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Science projects: Concorde supersonic passenger airliner and peaceful uses of atomic energy. Concorde supersonic passenger airliner and peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Growth of Scientific Community Four times as many scientists in Europe and North America in 1975 as in Four times as many scientists in Europe and North America in 1975 as in Highly specialized modern scientists and technologists worked as members of a team, which completely changed work and lifestyle of modern scientists. Highly specialized modern scientists and technologists worked as members of a team, which completely changed work and lifestyle of modern scientists. James Watson and Francis Crick win Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure of DNA James Watson and Francis Crick win Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure of DNA

Class Structure and Social Reform Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased access to higher education Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased access to higher education European society became more mobile and democratic. European society became more mobile and democratic. New middle-class, based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education, more open, democratic, and insecure than old propertied middle class. New middle-class, based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education, more open, democratic, and insecure than old propertied middle class. Changes in structure of middle class influential in trend toward less rigid class structure. Changes in structure of middle class influential in trend toward less rigid class structure.

Rise of Middle Class Rapid industrial and technological expansion created in large corporations and gov’t agencies became powerful demand for technologists and managers. Rapid industrial and technological expansion created in large corporations and gov’t agencies became powerful demand for technologists and managers. Old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses. Old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses. Top managers and ranking civil servants represented model for new middle class of salaried specialists; well paid and highly trained Top managers and ranking civil servants represented model for new middle class of salaried specialists; well paid and highly trained Passed on opportunity for advanced education to their children. Passed on opportunity for advanced education to their children.

Working Classes Structure of lower classes also became more flexible and open. Structure of lower classes also became more flexible and open. Mass exodus from farms and countryside. Mass exodus from farms and countryside. Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most traditional and least mobile groups. Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most traditional and least mobile groups. Industrial working class ceased to expand while job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly. Industrial working class ceased to expand while job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly. European governments reduced class tensions by further expanding social security reforms: health care, family allowances, maternity grants, public housing European governments reduced class tensions by further expanding social security reforms: health care, family allowances, maternity grants, public housing

Consumerism Sparked by rising standard of living giving more people disposable income. Sparked by rising standard of living giving more people disposable income. European automobile industry expanded phenomenally. European automobile industry expanded phenomenally. “Gadget revolution” “Gadget revolution” Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos. Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos. Purchasing greatly facilitated by installment purchasing. Purchasing greatly facilitated by installment purchasing.

Leisure and recreation Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income and less need to save for old age. Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income and less need to save for old age. Leisure and recreation became big business as workers worked fewer hours. Leisure and recreation became big business as workers worked fewer hours. Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized hobbies Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized hobbies Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and exhibitions. Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and exhibitions. Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely aristocratic. Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely aristocratic. Paid vacations required by law in most countries Paid vacations required by law in most countries

The Youth Movement and Counterculture Counter-Culture: rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quo Counter-Culture: rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quo “Baby boom” after WWII developed distinctive and international youth culture. “Baby boom” after WWII developed distinctive and international youth culture. Many raised in economic prosperity and more democratic class structure. Many raised in economic prosperity and more democratic class structure. New generation influenced by revival of leftist thought created a “counter-culture” New generation influenced by revival of leftist thought created a “counter-culture” Youth in America took the lead. Youth in America took the lead. Some youth rebelled against conformity and boredom of middle-class suburbs. Some youth rebelled against conformity and boredom of middle-class suburbs.

Causes of Youth Culure Mass communication and youth travel linked countries and continents together. Mass communication and youth travel linked countries and continents together. Baby boom meant youth became unusually large part of population and exercised exceptional influence on society as a whole. Baby boom meant youth became unusually large part of population and exercised exceptional influence on society as a whole. Postwar prosperity and greater equality gave youth more purchasing power than ever before. Postwar prosperity and greater equality gave youth more purchasing power than ever before. Youth to set mass trends and fads in everything from music to chemical stimulants. Youth to set mass trends and fads in everything from music to chemical stimulants.

Causes of Youth Culture Common patterns of consumption and behavior fostered generational loyalty. Common patterns of consumption and behavior fostered generational loyalty. Good jobs were readily available. Good jobs were readily available. High demand for workers meant youth had little need to fear punishment from straight-laced employers for unconventional behavior. High demand for workers meant youth had little need to fear punishment from straight-laced employers for unconventional behavior. Rock music helped tie counter-culture together Rock music helped tie counter-culture together Beatles, British rock band, became one of biggest pop groups in music history Beatles, British rock band, became one of biggest pop groups in music history