 Descriptive Methods ◦ Observation ◦ Survey Research  Experimental Methods ◦ Independent Groups Designs ◦ Repeated Measures Designs ◦ Complex Designs  Applied Research ◦ Single-Case Designs and Small-n Research ◦ Quasi-Experimental Designs and Program Evaluation

 Observation  Survey Research

 SAMPLING BEHAVIOR ◦ Time Sampling ◦ Situation Sampling  OBSERVATIONAL METHODS  DIRECT OBSERVATIONAL METHODS ◦ Observation without Intervention ◦ Observation with Intervention  INDIRECT (UNOBTRUSIVE) OBSERVATIONAL METHODS ◦ Physical Traces ◦ Archival Records  RECORDING BEHAVIOR ◦ Comprehensive Records of Behavior ◦ Selected Records of Behavior  ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA ◦ Qualitative Data Analysis ◦ Quantitative Data Analysis Observation

 Observations ◦ Everyday  gestures, expressions, postures - “universal signals”  biasness, no record ◦ Scientific  precisely defined conditions  systematic and objective  careful record keeping

 Observations ◦ Across different situations and at different times ◦ representativeness – Generalization - External validity  Time & event sampling ◦ choosing time intervals ◦ systematically or randomly ◦ Events that happen infrequently  Situation Sampling ◦ different locations ◦ under different circumstances/conditions ◦ enhances the external validity

 Naturalistic observation ◦ to describe behavior as it normally occurs and to examine relationships among variables. ◦ helps to establish the external validity of laboratory findings.  When ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental control, naturalistic observation is an important research strategy.

 The three methods of observation with intervention ◦ participant observation, structured observation, and the field experiment  Participant Observation ◦ Allow to observe – things not usually open to scientific observation  Reactivity ◦ individuals change their behavior when they know they are being  Structured observations ◦ set up to record behaviors, difficult to observe otherwise  Field experiment ◦ Manipulation of independent variables in a natural setting

 Advantage-nonreactive  Physical Traces ◦ Use traces reflect the physical evidence of use (or nonuse) of items  natural Vs controlled use ◦ Products are the creations, constructions, or other artifacts of behavior

 Archival records ◦ public and private documents describing the activities of individuals, groups, institutions, and governments, ◦ Running records: records that are continuously kept and updated e.g., records of academic life ◦ Records of specific, episodic events: describe specific events or episodes in ones life e.g., birth certificates, marriage, licenses  Potential problems ◦ selective deposit, selective survival, and the possibility of spurious relationships.

 How the results of a study are ultimately summarized, analyzed, and reported depends on how behavioral observations are initially recorded ◦ Classification of behaviors is done after the observations  As a general rule, records should be made during or as soon as possible after behavior is observed  Field notes -observer’s running descriptions of the participants, events, settings, and behaviors of interest

 USES OF SURVEYS  CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEYS  SAMPLING IN SURVEY RESEARCH ◦ Basic Terms of Sampling ◦ Approaches to Sampling  SURVEY METHODS ◦ Mail Surveys ◦ Personal Interviews ◦ Telephone Interviews ◦ Internet Surveys  SURVEY-RESEARCH DESIGNS ◦ Cross-Sectional Design ◦ Successive Independent Samples Design ◦ Longitudinal Design  QUESTIONNAIRES ◦ Questionnaires as Instruments ◦ Reliability and Validity of Self-Report Measures ◦ Constructing a Questionnaire  THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SURVEY RESEARCH ◦ Correspondence Between Reported and Actual Behavior ◦ Correlation and Causality Survey Research

 To assess people’s thoughts, opinions, and feelings.  Specific and limited in scope or more global in their goals.  Determine biasness: examine the survey procedures and analyses.

 Selection of sample (or samples)  Predetermined set of questions

 Response set/style ◦ Response acquiescence (yea-saying) ◦ Response deviation (nay-saying) ◦ Social desirability  Volunteer problem ◦ Volunteers differ from non-volunteers ◦ More intelligent, better educated, more cooperative

 Sampling issues ◦ Random sample is expensive to collect ◦ Stratified sample  Population is divided into smaller units and random sampling is done from the smaller units  Have the selected samples represent the population  40% from California or 65% female or 22% Hispanic

 Research Objectives ◦ Attitudes and beliefs ◦ Facts and demographics ◦ Behaviors  Wording ◦ Simplicity ◦ Multiple component questions ◦ Negative wording

 Answer format ◦ Open-ended versus forced choice  Answer options ◦ Format ◦ End points ◦ Symmetry ◦ Age/mental ability/physical ability/experience

 Guttman Scales (Cumulative Scales) ◦ Coefficient of reproducibility  Ratio of number of appropriate responses to total number of responses  % of responses that are completely cumulative  Guttman said.90 was minimal acceptable level  Likert Scales (Summated Rating Scales) ◦ Reverse scoring ◦ Coefficient of correlation  Do the questions match the overall score?

 Other scales ◦ Error choice method ◦ Semantic differential ◦ Bogardus Social Distance Scale  Self report method ◦ Rely on participant to provide data ◦ Benefit: ease ◦ Cost: not a direct test

 Personal administration  Mail surveys ◦ Response rate  Internet surveys  Other technologies

 Interviewer bias  Face-to-face  Telephone  Focus groups

 Cross-sectional method ◦ Take a large sample of various ages and test them at the same time  Longitudinal method ◦ Follow same participants over a period of time  Time-lag design ◦ Subjects of a particular age are tested at different time periods  Cross-sequential design ◦ Test several different age groups at different times