Women’s Job Opportunities in Eastern Europe: Effects of Education and Migration Outi Kärkkäinen 24 January 2008, World Bank, Washington D.C. Workshop on Sharing Growth Dividend: Women in the ECA Region

What is the ETF? A specialised agency of the European Union financed by the European Commission EU’s centre of expertise supporting education and training reform in the context of the EU’s external relations programmes Mission: we assist the EU’s neighbouring countries in developing and modernisation of HRD policies and putting them into practice Specific field: vocational education and training and its links to the labour market/employment We also assist the Commission in implementing the Tempus programme for the development of higher education systems in partner countries

Some facts and figures Established 1990 (Council Reg. 1360) Operational from 1994 Based inTurin, Italy DirectorMuriel Dunbar Staff104 + Budget€19,7 million (2007) Partner countries+/- 30

ETF’s partner countries Other countries from Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Potential candidate countries: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia Acceding and Candidate countries: Croatia, Macedonia FYR, Turkey European Neighbourhood Countries: Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Egypt, Georgia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Morocco, Moldova, Russia, Syria, Tunisia, Ukraine, West Bank and Gaza Strip

Education and Labor Market Outcomes for Women Education: An asset that pays off equally for men and women in the transition countries for accessing the labor market? Do women and men have equal possibility and capacity to benefit of their educational asset in integrating the home country labor market? In a situation where migration is an opportunity or the only possibility to find employment? Case pilot studies: 1. Transition from Education to Work in Ukraine and Serbia: assessing both the quantity and quality of the jobs taken up by young people 2. Migration Patterns and HRD Albania and Moldova (Egypt and Tunisia): links between migration, education and training systems and labor market

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Methods and Data Target group: individuals aged who had left education for the first time in the previous 5 years in Serbia and 6 years in Ukraine Samples: 1,504 respondents out of 8,593 households contacted (17.5%) in Serbia and 2,015 respondents out of 25,081 (8.0%) in Ukraine – Actual response rates 67.5% in Serbia and 68.3% in Ukraine Monthly data on the labor status of individuals between leaving education and the time of the survey with a distinction between two major types of jobs 1. First ever job 2. First significant job = lasting a minimum of 6 months and having a minimum timetable of 20 hours a week

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Methods and Data The questionnaire used during the survey was structured to cover: Situation before leaving continuous education for the first time Monthly calendar of activities since leaving education First job and first significant job after leaving education Current labour market situation Education and training since leaving education Sociodemographic characteristics.

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia General Findings Transition process relatively more quick in Ukraine: 3/5 of Ukrainian and 1/3 of Serbian school leavers had a significant job 6 months after leaving education Difference in quality of jobs and use of skills: Serbian young people remained unemployed longer or took up different kinds of informal jobs Relatively more Ukrainian young people were employed in the formal sector but often in jobs of low wages and low qualification level Education played a major role in both countries in order of priority: 1. Post-secondary education (including university graduates) 2. Secondary vocational education 3. Secondary general education

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Gender Differences: Activity Rates 1

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Gender Differences: Unemployment Rates

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Gender Differences: Length of the Transition Period

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Gender Differences: Status of the Job

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Gender Differences: Job Characteristics Private/public sector Overall young Serbians much more likely to be employed in the private sector than Ukrainians + gender gap: slightly fewer women get the first job in the private sector No gender differences in Ukraine Part-time/Full-time: Ukraine: Part-time employment more usual (12% and 9.5%) (compare Serbia 9.4% and 5.3%) + gender gap was higher

Transition from School to Work in Ukraine and Serbia Gender Differences: Mobility

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Background Return migration seen as a resource for the socioeconomic development of the country through financial capital (savings), human capital (skills and experience acquired abroad) and social capital. The relationship between migration and development is not straightforward nor happens automatically. Knowledge on the impact of migration on the education/skills and labour markets is limited: the ETF research approach included a review of the existing literature, fact-finding missions and field surveys in five ETF partner countries: Albania, Egypt, Moldova, Tunisia and Ukraine.

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Methods and Data Target groups: 1/ potential migrants aged 18–40 years 2/ returning migrants who left the country aged 18 or over and have lived and worked abroad continuously for at least six months Two questionnaires: one for the potential migrants’ survey and one for the returning migrants’ survey Moldovan sample: 2,020 people (1,010 potential and 1,010 returning) Albanian a sample of 2,029 people (1,027 and 1,002) Difficulties in obtaining statistically significant data (few potential migrants aged 18–40 years in rural areas, a high number of refusals for the returning migrants’ survey, few female return migrants etc.)

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Gender Differences: Who Migrates and Why? Massive migration flows: 44,6% of the Moldovan and 44,2% of the Albanians interviewed stated they thought of living and working aboard - Men migrate more than women Largest category of male migrants: aged between 21 and 30 Largest category of female migrants: aged between 31 and 40 migrants Intention to leave are approximately equal for employed and unemployed The most stated reason to migrate was to improve standard of living The second most stated was “have no job” for men in both countries and Moldovan women while for Albanian women the second most stated reason was to accompany spouse or parent

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Gender Differences

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Gender Differences: Education Both in Albania and Moldova potential and returning female migrants tend to have a slightly higher level of education than men The biggest difference for university graduate returning migrants: Albania 10.7% male, 26.4% female, Moldova 9.7% male, 18.2% female The higher the level of education the higher the mismatch of qualifications with the work in the country of destination Example: 65% of Albanian male and 59% of Albanian female university graduated returning migrants had worked as unskilled worker 60% of Moldovan male and 78% of Moldovan female university graduated returning migrants had worked as unskilled worker Male potential migrants believed slightly less that education could improve living standards while among the returning once gender gap had diminished

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Gender Differences: Job Situation in Return

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Gender Differences: Does Migration Pay Off?

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Gender Differences: Remittances 1

Migration Patterns and HRD in Albania and Moldova Gender Differences: Savings

Further Questions Do women and men acquire further skills and qualifications to the same extent in the country of immigration? How these skills are used in return? Differences in the use of financial capital (savings) brought back to home? Does the level of education (primary, secondary, secondary vocational, university) affect differently female and male school leavers in accessing the labor market in the first place and how? Is there a difference between sexes of what pays off to study and qualify for? Has the education as an asset the same return for females and males in terms of getting the first significant job (matching skills and qualifications)? Whose skills are the most efficiently and appropriately used? What are the barriers? According to women? According to employers?

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