1 The Standard Model of Particle Physics Owen Long U. C. Riverside June 27, 2014

2 Particle physics How the world works at very small distances (and very high temperatures). Earth Apple Atom Nucleus Quarks & leptons 10 7 meters 0.1 meters q l meters meters < meters apple / earth is about the same as atom / apple which is larger than quark / atom Ratios of sizes (We don't know exactly how small these are.)

The Large Hadron Collider World's highest energy accelerator. Circumference is 27 kilometers (17 miles). Crosses the French/Swiss border (twice). Accelerator is about 100 meters underground. 3 CERN Geneva airport CMS experiment The Alps

I interrupted the presentation to show two videos at this point: –Funny cartoon: MMAO_s MMAO_s –More realistic animation, which you can download here: event.html event.html 4

The Large Hadron Collider 5 How much energy is in the proton beams? (115 billion protons / bunch) x ( 2808 bunches / beam ) x ( 2 beams ) x ( 7 trillion eV / proton ) x ( 1.6 x Joules / eV ) = 723 million Joules !

The Large Hadron Collider 6 How much energy is in the proton beams? Same as the kinetic energy of a Boeing 737 flying at 500 mph (230 m/s) ! KE = (1/2) m v 2 KE = (1/2) (28,000 kg) (230 m/s) 2 KE = 740 million Joules! (115 billion protons / bunch) x ( 2808 bunches / beam ) x ( 2 beams ) x ( 7 trillion eV / proton ) x ( 1.6 x Joules / eV ) = 723 million Joules !

The Large Hadron Collider 7 How fast are the beam protons moving? My theory of special relativity says that nothing can move faster than the speed of light, which is 300 million meters per second (or 670 million mph).

The Large Hadron Collider 8 How fast are the beam protons moving? My theory of special relativity says that nothing can move faster than the speed of light, which is 300 million meters per second (or 670 million mph). If you race a LHC beam proton and a photon (particle of light), the photon is moving at about 300 million meters per second and the proton is only 2.7 meters per second slower! One second after the start of the race, they have both traveled about 300 million meters, but the photon is only ahead by 2.7 meters!

The CMS Experient CMS stands for Compact Muon Solenoid. The size of a 5 story apartment building. Weights about 12,500 tons, about the same as this 9

Taking data with the CMS experiment The proton bunches collide every 25 nanoseconds. –Collisions per second : 1 / (25 nanoseconds / collision) = 1 / 25 x = 40,000,000 collisions / second. –Light travels about 1 foot in 1 nanosecond. distance = speed x time = (3 x 10 8 m/s) x (1 x s) = 0.3 m = 1 foot. We can't possibly read out the detector and save every event (most are boring anyway). –Would be filling up 320 hard drives every second. We make decisions very quickly, on the fly, about which collision events to save –Look for unusual things: lots of energy coming out transverse to the beam, special particles produced, missing transverse energy, … 10

11 Your every-day particles and forces Helium atom: Two electrons (-) Two protons (+) Two neutrons (0) Atom held together by electromagnetic force d d u u d u Proton: Two up quarks One down quark Neutron: One up quark Two down quarks Proton, neutron, and nucleus held together by the strong force

12 Force carriers Particles interact by exchanging force carriers. Example for a repulsive force People in chairs are the interacting particles. The blue ball is the force carrier.

13 Force carriers Particles interact by exchanging force carriers. Example for a repulsive force People in chairs are the interacting particles. The blue ball is the force carrier. ++ Replace the people with two protons

14 Force carriers Particles interact by exchanging force carriers. Example for a repulsive force + + Replace the people with two protons The proton on the right emits a force carrier and recoils to the right. The proton on the left absorbs the force carrier and recoils to the left. This is an electromagnetic interaction. The force carrier is the photon

15 Electromagnetic and strong interactions Electromagnetic: same charges repel, opposite charges attract. Force carrier is the photon. –In an atom, the electrons (-) are attracted to the protons (+) in the nucleus. This is what holds the atom together. Strong: quarks attract each other by exchanging force carriers called “gluons”. The strong force is always attractive nucleus u d u proton

16 Summary of every-day particles and forces quarks u d Symbol Electric charge +2/3 -1/3 Every-day interactions (force carrier) Electromagnetic (photon  ) Strong (gluon g) leptons e Electromagnetic (photon  ) But, this is far from the full set of particles and forces…

17 The full Standard Model A far richer set of particles and interactions were present in the early universe just after the big bang. We create them with our accelerators and study them with our detectors.

18 The full Standard Model quarks u d Symbol Electric charge +2/3 -1/3 Interactions (force carrier) Electromagnetic (photon  ) Strong (gluon g) leptons e Electromagnetic (photon  ) ct sb e     0 Weak (W ±, Z 0 ) (only for e,  ) Three sets, or “generations”, of particles, heavier with each generation. Each charged lepton has an associated nearly massless neutrino. 3 rd Weak force with massive force carriers: W ±, Z 0. Every particle has a corresponding antiparticle with the same mass but opposite electric charge.

The last missing piece? The mass of a particle is thought to be related to how strongly it interacts with the so-called Higgs field, which is everywhere. –The theory explains why the weak force is much weaker than the electromagnetic force. If this is correct, the theory predicts the existence of a particle called the Higgs Boson. The theory also makes predictions about how the Higgs Boson is produced and how it decays that can be tested by the LHC. We have seen a new particle roughly in the place where the Higgs is supposed to be. –All measured properties are thus far consistent with it being the Higgs. If the Standard Model is a complete theory, the Higgs is the last particle to be discovered. We don’t need more particles. –If there’s something beyond the Standard Model (such as Supersymmetry), there could be many more particles yet to be discovered... 19

The Bigger Picture The physics of the very small (particle physics) is also connected to the physics of the very big (astronomy and cosmology). It’s possible to measure how much energy there is in the entire universe and also divide it up into categories. 20

The Bigger Picture The physics of the very small (particle physics) is also connected to the physics of the very big (astronomy and cosmology). It’s possible to measure how much energy there is in the entire universe and also divide it up into categories. 21 The stuff we are made of and everything we see is only 4% of the total! Dark Matter might be Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPS). We might produce and detect these at the LHC. We don’t know what the heck Dark Energy is...

22 Types of particle reactions Creation and annihilation –A particle and its antiparticle can transform into another particle, antiparticle pair through the exchange of a force carrier. The initial pair is “annihilated”, the second pair is “created”. –Examples: Particle decay –All of the particles in the 2 nd and 3 rd generation (except the neutrinos) spontaneously disintegrate (or “decay”) into other lighter particles through the exchange of a W + or W - boson. –Examples:

23 Some rules for Particle reactions Energy conservation –The total energy is conserved. –Mass is a from of energy : E = mc 2 –Heavy particles can decay into lighter particles, but not the other way around. Charge conservation –The total electric charge is conserved. Lepton number and flavor conservation –Leptons have lepton number +1, their antiparticles have lepton number -1. The total lepton number is conserved. –Each of the 3 generations has it’s own “flavor” of leptons. Lepton number is conserved separately for each flavor. Conservation laws: If something is “conserved” in a reaction, it means that it must be the same before and after the reaction.

24 An example  lepton number e lepton number 0+10 Electric charge 00 Energy heavylight Super light Allowed Some of the mass energy (E=mc 2 ) of the initial state is converted into kinetic energy of the final state, so we check that the initial mass is greater than the final total mass.

25 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed?

26 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed?

27 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed? e lepton number Electric charge Energy heavylight

28 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed?

29 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed?

30 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed? e lepton number Electric charge Energy heavylight  lepton number

31 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed?

32 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed?

33 Decays of the Z boson Is this decay allowed? e lepton number Electric charge Energy heavylight  lepton number This decay is also allowed

34 More about quarks and hadrons Quarks carry a property called color. –Three possibilities: red, blue, green. Antiquarks carry anticolor. –Three possibilities: antired, antiblue, or antigreen. Quarks are not allowed to show their color! Quarks must cluster together to form color-neutral objects. Meson Baryon Antibaryon example All of these combinations are called hadrons.

35 Quark jets If you try to separate a quark-antiquark pair, the strong force resists like a spring or a rubber band. More separation gives more resistance.

36 Quark jets If you try to separate a quark-antiquark pair, the strong force resists like a spring or a rubber band. More separation gives more resistance. Eventually, the rubber band (color field) will snap into two pieces. The energy of the color field creates a particle antiparticle pair! E = mc 2

37 Quark jets This can happen several times. The result is a group of hadrons all moving in about the same direction. When we see this pattern in our detectors, we call it a “jet”.

CMS experiment event displays 38 End view. Beams are going in to and out of the screen. Side view. Beams coming in from the left and the right.

Decays of the Higgs boson 39 Higgs decay mode Probability of Higgs decaying this way H to jets H to  H to ZZ* to l + l  l + l  e + e  e + e  e + e   +           most likely rare very rare

Decays of the Higgs boson 40 Higgs decay mode Probability of Higgs decaying this way Comments H to jets H to  H to ZZ* to l + l  l + l  e + e  e + e  e + e   +           most likely More than a billion background events that look like this for every signal event. It's pretty hopeless to search for it this way. rare very rare

Decays of the Higgs boson 41 Higgs decay mode Probability of Higgs decaying this way Comments H to jets H to  H to ZZ* to l + l  l + l  e + e  e + e  e + e   +           most likely More than a billion background events that look like this for every signal event. It's pretty hopeless to search for it this way. rare very rare These Higgs decays are rare, but it's also rare for other things to produce events that look like these. We will search for the Higgs in these decay modes.

Finding the Higgs boson 42

Finding the Higgs boson 43 There it is!

44 Supersymmetry and the CMS experiment It might be some of the Dark Matter out there. –A new quantum number called R-parity is conserved. Motivated by non-observation of proton decay. SUSY particles can only be created (or destroyed) in pairs or decay to lighter SUSY particles. A decay chain of SUSY particles ends in the lightest one (the “LSP”), which is STABLE. The Dark Matter might be a sea of LSPs! Why Supersymmetry? See arXiv:hep-ph/ for a very readable review.

Looking for Supersymmetry A common technique is to look for significant missing transverse momentum. –Simple momentum conservation in the plane transverse to the beam direction. The LSP is stable, electrically neutral, and weakly interacting. –It goes right through the detector without interacting. Have to distinguish SUSY from other sources of missing transverse energy (neutrinos). 45 An actual CMS event MET vector

Looking for Supersymmetry A major background in most SUSY searches is from the production and decay of pairs of top quarks. –The top quark is very heavy (172 GeV), same as SUSY mass scale. –On-shell W bosons (80 GeV) decay leptonically with a neutrino 30% of the time. –Each neutrino carries away significant momentum. –The neutrino does not interact with the detector AT ALL. Similar signature to SUSY –High transverse momentum jets. –b quark jets. –Lots of missing transverse momentum. 46 Standard Model background: production u

Extra Slides 47

Role of the 3 rd generation and b-jet tagging SUSY models that do not require fine tuning predict that the stop and/or the sbottom to be relatively light (~ 1 TeV or less). Both the stop and sbottom will produce b-quarks in their decay chains. 48 b-quarks decay via the weak interaction and have a relatively long lifetime (1.5 ps). Accounting for time dilation, the b-quark hadron can fly a few millimeters before decaying. We tag b-quark jets by looking for a displaced vertex within the jet.