1. Particle Detectors January 18, 2011 Kevin Stenson

2. Announcements Particle Detectors 2 1/18/11 Lab reports are due Wednesday at 5pm in the Turnin Box in lab. Prelabs for your next lab are also due Wednesday at 5pm in the turnin box in lab. Lab reports should contain your prelab which will be returned during lab the first Tuesday after turning it in. Lab reports:

3. What is particle physics? Particle Detectors 3 Particle physics is the ultimate reductionist science and seeks to answer just two questions: What are the fundamental building blocks (particles) in nature? What is the nature of the forces acting between the particles? and First I will tell you what we know… 1/18/11

4. Inside a helium atom Particle Detectors 4 Atoms are made up of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Neutral helium has 2 electrons. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. (Helium has 2 protons). p p n n The protons and neutrons are composed of up and down quarks. u u u d d d 1/18/11

5. The Fundamental Particles Particle Detectors 5 Although only 2 quarks (up and down) are needed to make up normal matter, there are two other pairs for a total of 6. (Nobody knows why this is so.) This 3 family structure extends to particles like electrons. There are 2 particles like the electron plus a set of 3 neutrinos. The 2 nd and 3 rd generation particles have more mass and are “unstable” which means they decay into 1 st generation particles. This happens in a tiny fraction of a second. 1/18/11

6. Fundamental forces Particle Detectors 6 The second part of particle physics is figuring out the interactions (forces between particles). We know of 4: Gravity: important for big objects & long distances (keeps Earth from escaping Sun); negligible in particle physics. Electromagnetism: causes opposite charges to attract (keeps negative electrons from escaping the positive nucleus). Causes lightning and compass behavior. Strong force: causes quarks to attract, keeps quarks inside proton and neutron and keeps protons and neutrons inside the nucleus. Weak force: Causes radioactive decay; for example of the radon inside your basement. 1/18/11

7. The Standard Model of particle physics Particle Detectors 7 Matter is made up of 3 families of quarks & leptons In quantum physics there is a force particle (carrier) that communicates the force between particles. 3 forces with force carriers Electromagnetism carried by photons Weak force carried by W & Z Strong force carried by gluons All of these particles have been detected by particle physicists. 1/18/11

8. Particles we see Particle Detectors 8 Hadrons feel the strong force and weak force, leptons feel the weak force, and charged particles feel the electromagnetic force. Charged leptons like electrons and muons are easy to see as they can interact via the electromagnetic force. Quarks interact via the strong force which prevent quarks from being observed. Quarks are always confined inside hadrons. Hadrons are divided into baryons and mesons: Baryons contain 3 quarks. Examples are protons and neutrons. Mesons contain a quark and an antiquark. Examples are pions (  ) and kaons (K). 1/18/11

9. The Higgs Particle Particle Detectors 9 The Standard Model has been around for 40 years. Only 1 particle of the Standard Model is left to be found. It is called the Higgs particle (after Peter Higgs who came up with the idea in 1964). There should also be a Higgs particle associated with the Higgs field. This is one of the things we are looking for. The Standard Model supposes that a Higgs field exists throughout the universe and is what gives fundamental particles their mass. If the Higgs particle (or something like it) does not exist the whole Standard Model will fall apart. 1/18/11

10. How does Higgs give mass to particles? Particle Detectors 10 In the normal world, more mass corresponds to more protons and neutrons. 2 gallons of water is twice as massive as 1 gallon of water because there are twice as many water molecules so twice as many protons and neutrons. This mass behaves just like normal mass. But quarks aren’t made up of anything else. So where do they get their mass from? > Each quark is connected to the Higgs field. The stronger the connection, the greater the mass. So really the mass is just the strength of the connection to the Higgs field. 1/18/11

11. How do we find new particles? Particle Detectors 11 Need a high energy accelerator to produce the interesting particles Need detectors to record what happens when the particles decay Need to separate the interesting stuff from the background 1/18/11

12. The particle accelerator Particle Detectors 12 The name of the accelerator is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and is located at CERN (European Center for Nuclear Research). The interesting particles are usually unstable and decay into other particles immediately after being created. This means we need to make our own new particles. E=mc 2 tells us that mass and energy are equivalent. An atomic bomb converts a small amount of mass into energy. We do the opposite. With enough energy, you can create mass such as a Higgs particle. 1/18/11

13. LHC Particle Detectors 13 The LHC is 17 miles around and located 100-500 feet underground CERN is on the French- Swiss border near Geneva. Alps Lake Geneva Geneva airport CMS Genev a 1/18/11

14. How the LHC works Particle Detectors 14 Accelerate protons 0.99999999c The proton energy (7 TeV) is 7000 times greater than at rest. Natural tendency of moving particles is to move in a straight line. Use powerful superconducting magnets (8.3 T) to bend protons so they go in a circle. The reason the accelerator is so large is because we cannot make stronger magnets. We actually accelerate protons in both directions and at 4 places we steer the protons into each other to collide. ≈3x10 18 protons/beam (0.5 A). 350 MJ of energy in each beam. 1/18/11

15. Particle Detectors 15 1/18/11

16. LHC Detectors to record the events Particle Detectors 16 1/18/11

17. Detecting the particles Particle Detectors 17 So we collide two protons at very high energy to create new particles. But these particles immediately decay into other particles. We need to detect these particles to reconstruct what happened. The CMS detector is in an excavated cavern 300 feet underground. 1/18/11

18. Reconstructing an event Particle Detectors 18 Need handles to separate signal from background Start by identifying and measuring (p or E) particles Photons (  ) in ECAL Electrons in tracker and ECAL Muons make it to the muon system Jets in tracker, ECAL, and HCAL Neutrinos, black holes, a stable lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP), and possibly other particles leave no trace, resulting in missing Et (conservation of momentum appears to be violated) 1/18/11

19. CMS Slice Particle Detectors 19 1/18/11