Personality Theories: Trait/Dispositional Perspectives

Definition A trait is any readily-identifiable, stable quality that characterizes an individual from other individuals Traits serve three major functions: To summarize, predict, and explain a person’s conduct

Basic Assumptions Traits present specific ideas about a person’s disposition (the way a person is likely to behave across situations as well as over time) Human behavior and personality traits can be placed on a continuum or organized into a hierarchy

Theorists Gordon Allport (1897-1967) Raymond B. Cattell (1905-1998) Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997)

Gordon Allport

Allport’s Disposition Theory Allport suggested that each individual has a unique set of personality traits He called these personal dispositions Allport divided traits into three categories: Cardinal, Central, Secondary

Allport’s Theory (con’t) Cardinal Traits A trait so dominant a person’s entire life revolves around it. Most people do not have one. Central Traits Qualities that characterize a person’s daily interactions Most people have 5 to 10 central traits To understand a person, one should look at the pattern of central traits Secondary Traits Characteristics that are exhibited in specific situations Secondary traits are more easily modified than central traits

Allport’s Theory (con’t) Allport claimed that everyone are unique  everyone has a different combination of traits Allport recommended an in-depth study of the individual, through analyzing diaries and use of interviews Secondary traits are more easily modified than central traits Most people have many more secondary traits than central traits

Raymond B. Cattell

Cattell’s Trait Theory Three sources of data are required to uncover all the major dimensions of personality: L-data Gathered from one’s life records Q-data Information gathered from questionnaires and interviews T-data Information obtained from objective testing situations These 3 sources must be incorporated to capture the full complexity of human personality.

Cattell’s Theory (con’t) Cattell used factor analysis to discover which traits tend to cluster together Cattell termed obvious, day-to-day traits, “surface” traits and higher-order, “deep” traits, source traits Cattell came up with a list of sixteen factors of personality (each a continuum from one extreme to the other), and developed a questionnaire that could be used to measure each of these factors in an individual or a group. The factors identified by Cattell were: sociable-unsociable, intelligent-unintelligent, emotionally stable- unstable, dominant-submissive, cheerful-brooding, conscientious-undependable, bold-timid, sensitive-insensitive, suspicious-trusting, imaginative-practical, shrewd-naïve, guilt proclivity-guilt rejection, radicalism-conservatism, self- sufficiency-group adherence, self-disciplined-uncontrolled will, and tense- relaxed.

Hans J. Eysenck

Hans J. Eysenck Eysenck's early work took place at approximately the same time as Cattell's and used an almost identical method. However, Eysenck used factor analysis slightly differently, and came up with only two factors: extroversion-introversion and neuroticism-stability. He focus on higher levels of trait organization called types:- Types incorporate lower-level elements (traits) Each trait incorporates even lower-order qualities (habits) Eysenck argues that all personality traits can be grouped under three bipolar dimensions: Extraversion-Introversion (E), Neuroticism-Stability (N), Psychoticism-Superego Function (P)

Extraversion charatcterizes people based on their orientation toward external sources of stimulations from the environment versus an orientation inward at the opposite extreme. Extroversion- introversion refers to a person's tendency to seek stimulation and novelty: a person who is highly extroverted is more likely to take risks, to have many friends, and to be outgoing than someone who is highly introverted. Psychotism includes a disposition toward psychosis and a degree of sociopathy. Neuroticism is basically a measure of emotional stability-instability. Neuroticism-stability refers to a person's tendency to become emotionally upset. Eysenck believed that these two traits were heavily influenced by biology.

Five Factor Model Many theorists agree there are five broad categories of traits: Extraversion-introversion Agreeableness-antagonism Conscientiousness-undirectedness Neuroticism-stability Openness to experience

Belief Regarding Basic Nature Resulting from a biological basis & neuro-psychological functioning within the environment. Eysenck’s found that introverts are more easily aroused by events and learn social prohibitions more easily than extroverts  they are more restrained and inhibited. Eysenck hypothesized that individual differences along this dimension have both hereditary and environmental origins.

Methods in Assessing Personality Interviews Projection Tests Situational Tests Self Reports Reputational Reports

Examples of instruments used in assessing traits Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory( MMPI) – the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests – developed to identify emotional disorders

Evaluating Trait Theory Trait theory, especially the Big 5 model, is able to describe personality Cross-cultural human studies find good agreement for the Big 5 model in many cultures Appear to be highly correlated not only in adulthood, but also in childhood and even late preschoolers Three dimensions (extraversion, neuroticism and agreeableness) have cross-species generality Problems with trait theory include: – Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop – Issue of explaining transient versus long-lasting traits

References Costa, P. & McCrae, R. (2003). Personality in Adulthood.NewYork: Guildford Press. Lahey, B. (2001). Psychology an Introduction (8th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. Lawrence, P. & Oliver, J. (2001). Personality Theory and Research (8th Edition). United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Liebert, L. & Libert, R. (1998). Personality Strategies & Issues (8th Edition). Pacific grove, Publishing Company: Brooks/Cole.