Introduction to Motor Development Chapter 1 © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Human Motor Development Process through which one passes throughout life Changes in our movement ability through the lifespan Academic field

Which Definition? “changes in motor behavior which reflect the interaction of the maturing organism and its environment” (Scholarly Directions Committee, 1974) “changes in movement competencies from infancy to adulthood and involves many aspects of human behavior, both as they affect movement development and as movement development affects them” (Keogh, 1977)

Which Definition? “the change in motor behavior across the lifespan and the processes which underlie these changes” (Clark & Whitehall, 1989) “the sequential, continuous age-related process whereby an individual progresses from simple, unorganized, and unskilled movement to the achievement of highly organized, complex motor skills and finally to the adjustment of skills that accompanies aging” (Haywood & Getchell, 2005)

Motor Development Academic Field “study of changes in human motor behavior over the lifespan, the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them”

Working Definition “Human motor development is an academic field of study; it is also a human lifelong process involving the progressions and regressions in our movement ability as we pass through life”

Importance of Motor Development To understand the way people normally develop movement skills Help individuals improve or perfect movement performance To understand the way special populations develop movement skills Help special populations improve or perfect movement performance

Why Study Motor Development? Table 1-1

Domains

Domains Cognitive domain Affective domain Motor domain Physical domain Concerns human intellectual development Affective domain Concerned with the social and emotional aspects of human development Motor domain Development of human movement and factors that affect that development Physical domain All types of physical/bodily change

Development Changes through which all individuals pass across their lifespans Domains Terms: Developmentally appropriate Age appropriate Individual appropriate

Development Refers to changes that occur as one passes through life Includes both maturation and growth

Elements of Developmental Change Qualitative Development change is not “just more of something” Sequential Certain motor patterns precede others Cumulative Behaviors are additive Directional Development has an ultimate goal Multifactorial No single factor direct change Individual Rate of change varies for all people Table 1-2

Maturation & Growth Maturation Growth Qualitative functional changes occurring with age Growth Quantitative structural changes occurring with age

Developmental Terms Cephalocaudal Proximodistal Development from head to tail Learning to walk Proximodistal Development from the body’s center to periphery Prenatal growth Acquisition of motor skill

How is this child demonstrating Developmental Terms Differentiation Progression from gross or immature movement to precise, well-controlled, and intentional movement Learning to walk Integration Functioning of systems together How is this child demonstrating Integration?

Developmental Terms Gross movement Fine movement Movement controlled by the large muscles or muscle groups Legs Fine movement Movement controlled by the small muscles or muscle groups Hands Terms can be used together Categorize movement Describe progression and regression

Process-Product Controversy Product approach in the study of human movement The end result, or outcome, is the focus Task-oriented approach Process approach in the study of human movement The emphasis is on the movement itself, with little attention to outcome

Age Periods Throughout Lifespan Terms in Figure 1-5 are helpful in organizing discussions and communicating statements about an individual at a particular time in life Figure 1-5

Stages of Development Age-stages Phase, time, levels, periods Unique, hierarchical, or universal behavior at a particular time in life Controversy over whether the stages of development actually exist

Models of Development Models explain movement behavior from birth to death Cratty (1970): explain changes as a function of age Gallahue & Ozmun (2005): hourglass model; stages developed upward with time Newell’s model based on constraints Interactive role of an individual’s structure and function, the task, and environmental conditions on human motor development

Mountain of Motor Development Figure 1-6

Mountain of Motor Development Ascend up the mountain A metaphor of motor development Progress from the prenatal period, to the base of the mountain, and finally the peak Must contend with environmental changes

Mountain of Motor Development Periods Reflexive Prenatal-few weeks after birth Involuntary response to stimuli Survival Brain-stem Preadapted Movement produced from higher brain centers Conscious, voluntary Fundamental Patterns Build on movement skills Includes fundamental locomotor skills, object control, fine motor control Critical to future motor performance

Mountain of Motor Development Periods Context-specific Begin to experience one or more peaks in movement skills Life experiences, personal likes and dislikes of movements Skillful Experience and practice Not achieved by all Requires motivation, opportunity, instruction, practice over years In general, cannot be competent in every skill Compensation Associated with injury: with practice and time, may return to previous skill level Aging: inevitable decline; compensate with new skill

History of the Field 1787-1928 Precursor Period Descriptive observation Darwin’s “Biographical Sketch of an Infant” Tiedemann watched the motor behavior of his son’s first 2.5 years Interested in the function of the mind, but this early research benefited motor development greatly

History of the Field 1928-1946 Maturational Period Biological processes influence motor development Product-process –oriented information Bayley’s scales Bayley’s scales are norm-referenced scales that follow motor behavior of the first 3 years of life Still used today

History of the Field 1946-1970 Normative/Descriptive Period Mid-1940s through 1960 ~dormant period 1960 ~ Kephart’s Slow Learner in the Classroom Kephart maintained that certain movement activities enhanced academic performance Not supported by research, still influences professional practice today

History of the Field 1960s – resurgence in study due to interest in children with disabilities Primary interests also on motor skills, not cognitive abilities Tests for motor development written A lot of study in biomechanical analysis of movement

History of the Field 1970-Present Process-Oriented Period Study of the processes of motor development Psychologist return to the study of motor behavior via processing information Dynamical systems theory (1980) “systems undergoing change are complex, coordinated, and somewhat self-organizing” Examines movement control and coordination Explains process of development

Interdisciplinary Approach Today, better evaluation of movement working with specialists in other fields Biomechanics Exercise physiology Working together, experts can more accurately detect subtle movement changes and differences

Research Designs Research Design Description Cross-sectional Comparison of two or more persons or groups at one point in time Longitudinal A study over a long period of time Time-lag Different cohorts are compared at different times Sequential-cohort Integrates the cross-sectional, longitudinal, and time-lag designs within one study

Research Designs Research Design PRO Cross-sectional Longitudinal Administratively efficient Quickly completed Age differences can be observed Longitudinal Change can be observed across ages Sequential-Cohort Accounts for generational (cohort) effect

Research Designs Research Design CON Cross-sectional Longitudinal Cannot observe change Can’t determine accurate age of groups Age and cohort are confounded Longitudinal Administratively inefficient Age and time of measurements are confounded Subjects may be influenced by repeated testing Subjects may drop out Sequential-Cohort Costly Difficult to analyze statistically

Hypothetical Study Sequential~Cohort Design

Key Terms