© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Sports in Society: Issues & Controversies Chapter 6 Deviance in Sports: Is It Out of Control?

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. What counts as deviance in sports? Should this be left to people in sports, or is it a community issue?

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Problems Faced When Studying Deviance in Sports 1. Forms & causes of deviance are diverse; one theory cannot explain them 2. Actions accepted in sports may be deviant in other social situations; actions accepted in society at large may be deviance in sports 3. Deviance in sports often involves unquestioned acceptance of norms, not a rejection of norms 4. Training & performance are now based on forms of science and technology for which regulatory norms may not exist

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Assault and battery? Not in boxing.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. “If they had more rules and better enforcement, all this deviance would stop” A functionalist approach to deviance in sports.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Using Functionalist Theory to Define Deviance  Deviance involves a rejection of accepted goals or the means of achieving goals in society  Conformity is equated with morality  Deviance is caused by faulty socialization or inconsistencies in the social system  Deviance is controlled by getting tough and enforcing more rules more strictly

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Using Conflict Theory to Define Deviance  Deviance involves actions that interfere with the interests of those with economic power  The actions of those who lack power are more likely to be labeled as deviant  Those who deviate often are victims of exploitation in a system characterized by inequalities  Rates of deviance will decline when power and resources are more equally distributed in society

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. The need for a new approach to explain deviance in sports  Most deviance in sports is not due to the moral bankruptcy of athletes or a process of economic exploitation  Therefore, we need an alternative explanation that is not based on to functionalism or conflict theory

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. A Constructionist Approach Deviance refers to actions, traits, or ideas that fall outside a range of acceptance as determined by people with the power to enforce norms in a social world

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. A constructionist approach is based on four assumptions: 1. Norms are socially constructed 2. Deviance is socially constructed as people negotiate the limits of what they will and will not accept 3. Power relations influence the process of negotiating normative limits 4. Most actions, traits, and ideas in a social world fall into a normally accepted range

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. A Normal range of accepted actions, traits, and ideas B Figure 6.2 Norms set limits but permit a range of acceptable actions, traits, or ideas An ideal that specifies a particular action, trait, or idea as right, good, or moral DEVIANCE (outside range of acceptance) Degree of deviance (Immorality and Perversity) Limit of acceptance

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Using Interactionist & Critical Theories to Define Deviance  Much deviance in sports involves over conformity to established norms in sports  Sport deviance must be understood in terms of the normative context of sport cultures and the emphasis on “the sport ethic”

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. FIGURE 6.3 Two types of deviance in sports. Most of our actions fall within the range of acceptance

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. The Sport Ethic A set of norms that is used in power and performance sports as the criterion for defining what it means to be an athlete and to successfully claim an identity as an athlete

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. The Norms of the Sport Ethic 1. An athlete makes sacrifices for “the game” 2. And athlete strives for distinction 3. An athlete accepts risks and play through pain 4. And athlete accepts no limits in the pursuit of possibilities

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Overconforming to the norms of the sport ethic can be dangerous for athletes

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Why Do Athletes Engage in Deviant Overconformity? 1. Playing sports is so exciting and exhilarating that athletes will do almost anything to stay involved 2. Being selected to play high-performance sports may require over-conformity to the norms of the sport ethic 3. Exceeding normative limits creates excitement and leads to strong social bonds between athletes

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Athletes Most Likely to Overconform to the Sport Ethic 1. Those with low self-esteem or strong needs to be accepted by peers in a sport 2. Those who see achievements in sport as their only way to gain success and respect 3. Those men who link their athletic and gender identities together

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Social Processes in Elite Power & Performance Sports  Bond athletes in ways that normalize overconformity to the sport ethic  Separate athletes from the rest of the community while inspiring awe and admiration among community members  Lead athletes to develop HUBRIS – that is, a sense of arrogance, separateness, and superiority

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Deviant Overconformity and Group Dynamics Following the Norms of the Sport Ethic Special Bonds Among Athletes Hubris

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Hypotheses About Deviance Among Athletes Deviance becomes more likely when 1. Social bonds normalize risk taking 2. Athletes are separated from the rest of the community 3. Athletes develop extreme degrees of hubris 4. When people in the community see athletes as being special because they engage in extreme behaviors

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. How to Control Deviant Overconformity in Sports  Learn to identify the forms and dynamics of overconformity among athletes  Raise critical questions about the meaning, organization, and purpose of sports  Create norms in sports that discourage over conformity to the sport ethic  Help athletes to learn to strike a balance between accepting and questioning rules and norms in their sports

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Research on Deviance Among Athletes On the Field Deviance  Cheating, dirty play, fighting, & violence are less common today than in the past This historical finding contradicts popular perceptions. Many people think that athletes are more deviant today because there are more rules than ever before, and expectations for conformity are greater.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Research on Deviance Among Athletes Off the Field Deviance  Athletes do not have higher delinquency rates than similar peers who do not play sports  Data on academic cheating is inconclusive  Athletes older than 18 have higher rates of alcohol use and binge drinking than similar peers  Felony rates among adult athletes do not seem to be out of control, but they are a problem

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Does playing sports decrease rates of deviance?

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Research suggests that playing organized sports might discourage deviance when they emphasize: 1. A philosophy of nonviolence 2. Respect for self and others 3. The importance of fitness and control over self 4. Confidence in physical skills 5. A sense of responsibility

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. DON’T FORGET Athletes are not the only ones in sports who engage in deviant behavior. Think of other examples involving: Coaches Administrators Team owners Agents

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Using Performance Enhancing Substances in Sports  The use of performance enhancing substances occurs regularly in high performance sports  Much substance use constitutes a form of deviant overconformity  Such substances will be used as long as athletes believe they enhance performance

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Very few athletes today compete at high levels without taking “supplements”

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Defining and Banning Performance Enhancing Substances  Defining a “performance enhancing substance” is difficult  Defining what is natural or artificial is difficult  Defining what is fair when using science, medicine, and technology in sports is difficult  Determining what is dangerous to health is difficult  Studying & testing for substances is constrained by ethical and legal factors

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Scientific research is crucial for determining the consequences of substance use “Is this what those hormones are supposed to do, Carl?”

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Why Is Substance Use So Prevalent Today? (1-5) 1. The high stakes in sports have fueled research and development of substances 2. Fascination with the use of technology to push human limits 3. The rationalization of the body 4. Heavy emphasis on self-medication 5. Changing gender relations (continued)

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Why Is Substance Use So Prevalent Today? (6-8) 6. The organization of power and performance sports (must win to continue to play) 7. Coaches, sponsors, administrators, and fans encourage deviant overconformity 8. Athletes’ performances are closely monitored with an emphasis on control over body and conformity to demands of coaches

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Arguments for Testing Testing is needed to:  Protect the health of athletes  Guarantee fairness and a level playing field  Protect children who may imitate athletes  Maintain normal law enforcement procedures  Testing is needed to anticipate and discourage the use of genetic engineering

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Arguments Against Testing Testing should be dropped because it:  Is not effective (due to constraints on testers)  Violates privacy rights  Uses valuable sport resources  Is based on norms that cannot be fairly applied to the bodies of all athletes  Encourages the use of genetic engineering and untested technologies of performance

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Performance enhancing substances are now a regular part of sports for many athletes “Don’t worry, honey. Most of these are legal, some can’t be tested for, others mask the ones they can test for, and some are too new for the tests!”

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. The Anti-Doping Passport used by USADA

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start (I) 1. Critically examine the hypocrisy in elite sports 2. Establish rules indicating that risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in sports 3. Establish rules stating that injured athletes must be independently certified as “well” before they may play 4. Educate young athletes to define courage and discipline in ways that promote health (continued)

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Regulating the use of new technologies is a challenge that all people face as they make decisions in their everyday lives. How are technologies regulated in the Paralympics?

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start (II) 5. Establish a code of ethics for sport scientists 6. Make drug education part of deviance and health education that Creates norms regulating use of technology Critically examines values and norms in sports Redefines meaning of achievement Teaches athletes to think critically Provides accurate and current information to parents, coaches, and athletes