1 Geographic Ecology Chapter 22

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4 Outline Introduction Island Area, Isolation, and Species Richness  Terrestrial  Aquatic Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness Historical and Regional Influences

5 Introduction MacArthur defined geographic ecology as the search for patterns of plant and animal life that can be put on a map.  Above level of landscape ecology.  Vast breadth  Chapter only focuses on a few aspects.

6 Island Area, Isolation, and Species Richness Preston found fewest bird species live on smallest islands and most species on largest islands. Nilsson et al. found island area was best single predictor of species richness among woody plants, carabid beetles, and land snails.

7 Island Area, Isolation, and Species Richness

8 Habitat Patches on Continents: Mountain Islands As Pleistocene ended and climate warmed, forest and alpine habitats contracted to the tops of high mountains across American Southwest.  Woodlands, grasslands, and desert scrub, invaded lower elevations.  Once continuous forest converted to series of island-like fragments associated with mountains: Montane.

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10 Lakes as Islands Lakes can be considered as habitat islands.  Differ widely by degree of isolation.  Tonn and Magnuson found the number of species increases with the area of an insular environment.

11 Marine Islands MacArthur and Wilson found isolation reduces bird diversity on Pacific Islands. Island area and species richness in Azore Islands:  Birds show clear influence of isolation on diversity, pteridophytes do not.

12 Marine Islands

13 Isolation and Habitat Islands on Continents Lomolino et al. found a strong negative relationship between isolation and the number of montane mammal species living on mountaintops across the American Southwest.

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15 Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography MacArthur and Wilson: Model explaining species diversity on islands = immigration and extinction rates.  Rates of immigration highest on new island with no organisms.  As species accumulate, rate of immigration declines since fewer arrivals arenew species.

16 Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography

17 Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography Rate of extinction rises with increasing number of species on an island for three reasons:  More species creates larger pool of potential extinctions

18 Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography Rate of extinction rises with increasing number of species on an island for three reasons:  More species creates larger pool of potential extinctions  As number of species increases, population size of each must diminish

19 Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography Rate of extinction rises with increasing number of species on an island for three reasons:  More species creates larger pool of potential extinctions  As number of species increases, population size of each must diminish  As number of species increases, competitive interactions between species will increase

20 Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography Point where two lines cross predicts the number of species on island Rates of extinction determined mainly by island size:  Large near islands = highest S  Small far islands = lowest S  Small near and Large = intermediate S

21 Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography

22 Species Turnover on Islands Equilibrium model predicts species composition on islands is dynamic  Change = species turnover Diamond: birds on 9 CA Channel Islands in stable equilibrium  Species turnover result of equal levels of immigration and extinction

23 Species Turnover on Islands

24 Experimental Island Biogeography Simberloff and Wilson studied insect recolonization in Florida Keys  Chose 2 stands of mangroves as control islands; 6 others as experimental islands  Defaunated islands  Followed recolonization for 1 yr – Species number constant, but composition changed considerably

25 Spray insecticide on 2 islands, 6 no spray

26 Experimental Island Biogeography

27 Manipulating Island Area Simberloff tested effect of island area on species richness = cut mangroves out  area reduced, S decreased  control island S increased slightly  reduced area < species  Area has positive influence on S

28 Simberloff (1976) Manipulating Island Area

29 Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness

30 Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness Most groups of organisms are more species- rich in tropics Brown grouped hypotheses into six categories:

31  1. Time Since Perturbation  More species in the tropics because tropics are older and disturbed less frequently  More time for speciation, less frequent disturbance reduces extinction rate

32  2. Productivity  High productivity = high species richness (coral reefs, rainforests)  More energy to divide among population  3. Environmental Heterogeneity  More heterogeneity, more potential habitat areas and niches

33  4. Favorableness  Tropics more favorable environments  No extremes to limit diversity  5. Niche Breadth and Interspecific Interactions  Various themes  Brown: biological processes play secondary role – Ultimate causes are physical differences

34  6. Speciation rates and extinction rates  Tropics have increased speciation  Tropics have decreased extinction

35 Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness Rosenzweig: immigration can be largely discounted at broad scales, thus speciation is primary source of new species

36 Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness Rosenzweig: immigration can be largely discounted at broad scales, thus speciation is primary source of new species  Species removal via extinction  Tropics richness is greater due to higher rates of speciation and / or lower rates of extinction

37 Continental Area and Species Richness Rosenzweig - strong positive relationship between area and species diversity

38 Map with real projection Tropics have higher area

39 Historical and Regional Influences Latham and Ricklefs: diversity of temperate zone trees cannot be explained by area effect  Temperate forest biome in Europe, Eastern Asia, and Eastern North America all have ~ similar area, but different levels of biological diversity  Eastern Asia: 3x NA and 6x Europe.

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41 Diversity of Temperate Trees Latham and Ricklefs: Must examine conditions in these regions during last glacial period  Mountains in Europe form east-west oriented barriers  During last ice age, temperate trees had southward retreat largely cut-off  Lower species richness as consequence of higher extinction rate

42 Diversity of Temperate Trees Latham and Ricklefs: Must examine conditions in these regions during last glacial period  Mountains in Europe form east-west oriented barriers  During last ice age, temperate trees had southward retreat largely cut-off

43 Historical and Regional Influences  Appalachian Mountains in N.A. run north- south  temperate trees had retreat path as temperatures cooled  Also no mountain barriers in Asia

44 Historical and Regional Influences  Appalachian Mountains in N.A. run north- south; temperate trees had retreat path as temperatures cooled.  Also no mountain barriers in Asia. Most temperate tree taxa originated in Eastern Asia - dispersed to Europe and N.A.  After dispersal lines were cut, speciation continued in Asia

45 Review Introduction Island Area, Isolation, and Species Richness  Terrestrial  Aquatic Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness Historical and Regional Influences

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