Criteria for presentation 1. the oral presentation: quality, clarity, and accuracy 2. the effectiveness of the presentation: time management, organization, and presentation style 3. the quality of discussion: the quality of discussion questions, leading discussion, and responding questions 4. the effective use of teaching technology or other equipment.

Time arrangement about 30 minutes 10 minutes for presenting Hock’s study 20 minutes for discussion Please turn in the slides from PowerPoint to me (a hard copy or an electric copy).

A History of Psychology Chapter three: Physiological Influence on Psychology

I. The Importance of the Human Observer A. Measurement errors 1. Maskelyne’s assistant (Kinnebrook): 1795 The time required for a star to pass from one point to another were slower than his own Maskelyne fired Kinnebrook

I. The Importance of the Human Observer A. Measurement errors 2. Bessel: the personal equation (differences in observation times among all observers) We must consider the nature of the observer An issue in all the science

I. The Importance of the Human Observer B. Locke and Berkeley Had discussed the subjective nature of human perception C. Scientists began to focus on the psychological processed of sensing and perceiving

II. Developments in Early Physiology A. 1830s physiology 1. became experimentally oriented 2. Johannes Muller ( ) Productive: every 7 weeks 1 paper advocate the use of experimental method : Handbook of the Psychology of Mankind

II. Developments in Early Physiology 2. Johannes Muller ( ) The theory of specific energies of nerves Each sensory nerve has its own specific energy consequent research to localize functions within the nervous system to pinpoint sensory receptor mechanisms

II. Developments in Early Physiology

Techniques for study the brain 1. Extirpation A technique for determining the function of a given part of an animal’s brain by removing or destroying the resulting behavior change. (Hall and Flourens) 2. Clinical method examination of brain structures to detect damaged areas assumed to be responsible for behavioral conditions that existed while the patient was still alive. (Broca) 3. Electrical Stimulation exploring the cerebral cortex with weak electric current to observe motor responses (Fritsch and Hitzig)

II. Developments in Early Physiology B. Research on brain function 1. Marshall Hall ( ) Scottish physician Observed movement of decapitated animals (Extirpation) Concluded different levels of movement depend on different parts of the nervous system

II. Developments in Early Physiology B. Research on brain function 2. Pierre Flourens ( ) professor of natural history in Paris used extirpation

II. Developments in Early Physiology B. Research on brain function 3. Paul Broca ( ) 1861: the clinical method Broca’s area: speech center

II. Developments in Early Physiology B. Research on brain function 4. Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig 1870: electrical stimulation method stimulation of certain cortical areas results in motor responses Eduard Hitzig Gustav Fritsch

II. Developments in Early Physiology C. Research on Brain Functions: Mapping from the outside 1. Franz Josef Gall ( ) Interested in: the outside of brain Larger brains  more intelligent? Failed in his attempt to map the brain from outside But, it made possible to localize specific brain functions

II. Developments in Early Physiology D. Research on the nervous system 1. Luigi Gaivani ( ) Suggested nature of nerve impulse is electrical. 2. accepted electrical nature of nerve impulse as fact 3. viewed central nervous system is a switching station

III. The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology A. Four German physiologists directly responsible for initial application of experimentation to mind Hermann Helmholtz Ernst Weber Gustav Fechner Wilhelm Wundt

III. The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology Why Germany? 1. German intellectual history experimental physiology established experimental physiology recognized to a unique degree the German temperament adoption of the inductive method ready acceptance of biology as a science

III. The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology Why Germany? 2. broad definition of science 3. greater opportunities to learn and practice the new techniques 4. a great many universities and the most advanced scientific laboratory equipment

III. The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology Why Germany? 5. one could earn a living as a research scientist 6. German educational reform principles of academic freedom in research and teaching encouraged growth of universities and faculty positions 7. Results series of discoveries in the science German professors ruled science in Europe

IV. Hermann Helmholtz ( ) A. Helmholtz’s life 1. born in Potdam, Germany : enrolled at a Berlin medical institute 3. seven years as army surgeon continued to study mathematics and physics published articles

IV. Hermann Helmholtz ( ) 4. faculty member in several universities 5. areas of contribution: physics, physiology, and psychology invented the ophthalmoscope wrote on a diversity of topics indirectly contributed to inventions of the wireless telegraph and radio

IV. Hermann Helmholtz ( ) B. The contributions of Helmholtz: the neural, vision, and audition 1. first empirical measurement of the rate of conduction of the neural impulse (90 feet/second) 2. reaction times for sensory nerves in humans

IV. Hermann Helmholtz ( ) B. The contributions of Helmholtz: the neural, vision, and audition 3. revised and extended a theory of color vision 4. research on audition 5. his study of the senses strengthened the experimental approach to the study of psychological problems

V. Ernst Weber ( ) A. his life 1. born in Wittenberg, Germany : PhD at University of Leipzig : taught anatomy and psychology at Leipzig

V. Ernst Weber ( ) A. his life 4. primary research interest: higher senses of vision and hearing 5. explored new fields: skin senses and muscular sensations 6. of special importance: the application of experimental methods of physiology to problems of psychology

V. Ernst Weber ( ) B. Two-point thresholds 1. The threshold at which two points of stimulation can be distinguished as such 2. first systematic experimental demonstration of the concept of threshold

V. Ernst Weber ( ) C. Just noticeable differences 1. just noticeable difference concept The smallest difference that can be detected between two physical stimuli 2. contribution of muscle sensations to ability to distinguish between weights 3. discrimination depends on the relative difference between and not on the absolute weights of objects

V. Ernst Weber ( ) 4. perception of a stimulus is not directly correlated to the physical stimulus 5. revealed a way to investigate the mind- body relationship 6. demonstrated the usefulness of experimental methods as a means of studying psychological phenomena

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) A. his life 1. born in southeastern Germany : began medical studies at University of Leipzig 3. attended Weber’s lectures on physiology

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) A. his life : appointed professor 5. several years of depression, followed by delusions of grandeur developed the idea of the pleasure principle 6. remained at Leipzig, with at least one scholarly work each year, until his death

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) B. Mind and body: A quantitative relationship : insight about the law governing the mind-body connection a quantitative relationship between a mental sensation and material stimulus effects of stimulus intensities are relatives to the amount of sensation that already exists

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) B. Mind and body: A quantitative relationship 2. Fechner proposed two ways to measure sensation A: a stimulus is present or absent, sensed or not sensed B: measure the stimulus intensity at which subjects reported that the sensation first occurs. the absolute threshold: the point of intensity below which no sensation is reported and above which subjects do experience a sensation 3. differential threshold of sensitivity: The point of sensitivity at which the least amount of change in a stimulus gives rise to a change in sensation.

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) B. Mind and body: A quantitative relationship 4. the number of just notice difference (jnd) can be used as an objective measure of the subjective magnitude of sensation C. 1860: Elements of Psychophysics outstanding original contribution to the development of psychology as a science

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) D. In brief, Fechner 1. provided the prerequisites for a science 2. precise and elegant techniques of measurement 3. provoked Wundt’s plan for an experimental psychology

VII. The Formal Founding of Psychology Wilhelm Wundt ( ) 1. started the first laboratory and first journal in experimental psychology 2. viewed Fechner’s work as the first in experimental psychology 3. announced his goal to establish a new discipline 4. Fechner was the originator; Wundt was the agent and promoter