Canning: n Sealed food is heated to kill or inhibit microbial growth n Acidic food easier to can; neutral food heated to > 100 o C; quality and nutritional value declines n Spoilage of canned food by anaerobic organisms (Clostridium and toxin production); gas indicates problems

Food Preservation n Removal of Microorganisms –usually achieved by filtration –commonly used for water, beer, wine, juices, soft drinks, and other liquids

Food Preservation n Chemical-Based Preservation –GRAS chemical agents “generally recognized as safe” –pH of food impacts effectiveness of chemical preservative Sodium benzoate Sorbic acid Sodium or calcium propionate Sulfur dioxide

Chemical food preservation n Many are completely safe (sodium propionate); some may affect human health: –Nitrites (precursors of carcinogens) –Ethylene and propylene oxides (mutagens) –Antibiotics (spread of resistance)

Food Preservation n Radiation –ultraviolet (UV) radiation used for surfaces of food-handling equipment does not penetrate foods –Gamma radiation use to extend shelf life or sterilize meat, seafoods, fruits, and vegetables n products need to be labeled as irradiated n Varied but controlled dozes depending on purpose (e.g., NASA used 10 times more radiation to treat astronauts food than what we use to treat hamburgers - 44 kGy vs. 4.5 kGy)

Food Preservation n Microbial Product-Based Inhibition –Bacteriocins: bactericidal proteins active against related species –some dissipate proton motive force of susceptible bacteria –some form pores in plasma membranes –some inhibit protein or RNA synthesis –e.g., nisin: used in low-acid foods to inactivate Clostridium botulinum during canning process

Food Spoilage Approximately 1/3 rd of all food manufactured in world is lost to spoilage Microbial content of foods (microbial load): qualitative (which bugs) and quantitative (how many bugs). -Change in appearance, small, or taste that makes it unacceptable to consumers - not necessarily harmful to consumers. -Many food products are terrific microbial growth media.

n Growth of microbes in food follows a typical microbial growth pattern n Growth rate depends on the nutritional value and temperature of the food Number of microbes depends on both inoculum size and growth rate Food spoilage occurs at high populations density (at stationary phase) - retarding microbial growth delays spoilage

Microorganisms in Food n Food spoilage –involves predictable succession of microbes –different foods undergo different types of spoilage processes –toxins are sometimes produced algal toxins may contaminate shellfish and finfish

Food spoilage: n We distinguish: –Perishable food: meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, most fruit and vegetables –Semi-perishable food: potatoes, apples, nuts –Nonperishable food: sugar, flour, rice, dry beans Related to water content (water activity) and implies storage conditions

Toxins n ergotism –toxic condition caused by growth of a fungus in grains n aflatoxins –carcinogens produced in fungus-infected grains and nut products n fumonisins –carcinogens produced in fungus-infected corn

Food-borne Illness n Food-Borne Infection –ingestion of microbes, followed by growth, tissue invasion, and/or release of toxins n Food-Borne Intoxications –ingestion of toxins in foods in which microbes have grown –include staphylococcal food poisoning, botulism, Clostridium perfringens food poisoning, and Bacillus cereus food poisoning

Food-borne Illness n Detection of Food-Borne Pathogens –culture techniques –immunological techniques - very sensitive –molecular techniques –sensitive and specific Process food to release microbes; culturing and use of molecular probes (antibodies, gene probes, PCR) to detect specific microbes

Examples of foodborne diseases - most are infections and associated with animal products: OrganismNumber of cases per year (U.S.) Foods to watch Campylobacter jejuni1,963,000Poultry and diary products Salmonella spp.1,340,000Poultry, meat, diary and eggs Clostridium perfringens 248,000Cooked and reheated meat products Giardia lamblia200,000Contaminated meat Norwalk-like viruses9,200,000Shellfish, other food

Microbiology of Fermented Foods Any partial breakdown of carbohydrates taking place in the absence of oxygen. n major fermentations used are lactic, propionic, and ethanolic fermentations

Microbiology of fermented foods n Fermentation has been a major way of preserving foods. Microbial growth causes chemical and/or textural changes to form a product that can be stored for extended periods. n Fermentation also creates new, pleasing food flavors and odors.

Fermented Foods n Alcoholic Beverages –Alcohol is produced from fermentation by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae n Bread n Dairy Products n Other Fermented Foods

Production of Breads n involves growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) under aerobic conditions –maximizes CO 2 production, which leavens bread n other microbes used to make special breads (e.g., sourdough bread ) n can be spoiled by Bacillus species that produce ropiness

Production of alcoholic beverages n Fermentation of fruit juice results in wine. Most wine is made from grapes. n Beer and ale is produced by the fermentation of malted grains. n Distilled beverages are produced by concentrating alcohol by distillation.

Fermented Foods n Beer –“Beer is dear” –Produced by the fermentation of malted grain Malted grain: Grain that has been allowed to germinate, then dried in a kiln & perhaps roasted Germinating the grain causes the production of a number of enzymes, most notably α- and β- amylase Malted grains that may be used are barley, rye, or wheat Unmalted grains, such as rice or corn, may also be used

Beer n The starch in malt is converted to sugar by natural enzymes. n Sugars are then fermented by yeasts. n The aqueous extract (wort) is separated by filtration, hops added and boiled for several hours. n Wort is then transferred to fermentation vessel (1-3 weeks). n Yeast used is Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Bottom-fermenting yeasts produce lagers Top-fermenting yeasts produce ales The beer may be disinfected either by cold filtration through a 0.45  m filter or by pasteurization

Fermented Foods n Wine –“Wine is Fine” –Produced from the fermentation of fruit juice, usually from grapes –The grapes are crushed to form a “must” For white wines, white grapes are usually used, and the skins are removed from the must (“pressing”) before fermentation For red wines, red or black grapes are used, and the skin is allowed to remain during fermentation For rosé wines, red grapes are used and the juice is allowed to remain in contact with the skins just long enough for a rose or pink color to develop

Wine production n Grapes are harvested and crushed by machines and the juice called must, is squeezed out. n Yeasts used can be of two types – wild yeasts and Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. n Fermentation is carried out in vats of various sizes made of various materials. n Wine is separated from the sediment and then stored at lower temperature for aging.

Fermented Foods n Wine –The must undergoes primary fermentation Natural yeasts on the skins of the grapes may be used, but in commercial production cultured yeast is often used to give more predictable results Malolactic fermentation by bacteria in the must converts malic acid into lactic acid After primary fermentation, the must is pressed (red wines) and transferred to different containers for secondary fermentation. Secondary fermentation and aging -Takes 3 – 6 months Done in either stainless steel vessels or in oaken barrels The vessel is kept airtight to prevent oxidation. Proteins are broken down, & particles settle Blending and bottling

Fermented Foods n Yogurt –Milk is fermented by a mixture of Streptococcus salivarius ssp thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus (official name Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus). Often these two are co-cultured with other lactic acid bacteria for taste or health effects (probiotics). –Acid produced from the fermentation causes the protein in the milk (casein) to coagulate into a semisolid curd –For flavored yogurt, fruit are added after the yogurt is made.

Cheese production n Cheese is one of the oldest human foods and is thought to have developed approximately 8000 years ago. n About 2000 varieties are produced throughout the world. n All cheese results from a lactic acid fermentation of milk, which results in coagulation of milk proteins and formation of a curd. n All the major cheeses produced by dairy fermentation are done by Streptococcus lactis.

Fermented Foods n Cheese –Milk is treated with lactic acid bacteria and an enzyme called rennin that partially hydrolyses the protein and causes it to coagulate into “curds.” The liquid portion of the milk at this time is called “whey.” –The whey is separated from the curds, and the curds are heated, pressed and then usually aged (ripened). –Different microbes in the early and late stages of processing give rise to cheeses with different characteristics.

Fermented Milks n Dairy products can be fermented to yield a wide variety of cultured milk products. n Fermented milks have therapeutic effects. n Acidophilus milk is produced by Lactobacillus acidophilus. L. acidophilus may exhibit anticancer activity. n Bifidobacterium-amended fermented milk products may also promote antitumorigenic activity.

Microorganisms as Foods and Food Amendments n variety of bacteria, yeasts, and other fungi are used as animal and human food sources n probiotics –microbial dietary adjuvants –microbes added to diet in order to provide health benefits beyond basic nutritive value

What are Probiotics Supplements? n Probiotics are supplements made of beneficial, friendly lactic acid bacteria and formulated to reflect the composition of healthy gut flora n They should be taken 2-3 times per day to restore healthy intestinal flora. Afterwards, on a daily basis in order to maintain healthy intestinal flora and help guard against diseases caused by pathogenic or putrefactive bacteria

Main Families of Lactic Bacteria Fig 1: Lactobacilli (Small Intestine) Fig 2: Bifidobacteria (Large Intestine) Small Intestine Large Intestine

Lactic Acid Bacteria Adhere to intestinal cells and protect them against pathogenic bacteria Lactic Acid Bacteria Act like a shield and mask receptor sites for enterotoxinogen pathogens Lactic Acid Bacteria Act like a shield and mask receptor sites for pathogenic bacteria Lactic Bacteria: Action Mechanism

Requirements of Probiotics n Probiotics must be alive n Probiotics must be safe n Probiotics must deliver a measured physiological impact n Survival of gastrointestinal tract transit n Probiotics needn’t be restricted to food applications

Expected Benefits Associated with consumption of Probiotics n Increased tolerance to infections n Control of diarrhea n Reduction of blood pressure n Cholesterol reduction n Allergy control n Cancer reduction

Probiotics and poultry n A probiotic made up of 29 bacteria (PRE-EMPT) is being used in chickens. n This establishes a functional microbial community in the cecum and limits Salmonella colonisation of the gut through competitive exclusion.

Single cell proteins n Refers to the dried cells of microorganisms such as algae, bacteria and fungi. n Used as protein sources in animal feeds including human food supplements. –E.g Pruteen - Made from the bacterium Methilophilus methilotrophus. –Spirulina – cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira. Whole cells as well as beta carotenes from spirulina are available.

Yeast as a food supplement n Yeast for nutritional purposes is cultivated in large aerated fermentors in a medium containing molasses as an ingredient. n At the end of the growth period, yeast cells are recovered by centrifugation and washed. n Nutritional yeast is heat-killed and usually dried. n Yeast cells are rich in B vitamins and in protein.

Mushrooms as a food source n Several kinds of fungi are sources of human food of which the most important are the mushrooms. n The mushroom commercially grown in most parts of the world is Agaricus bisporus and is cultivated in mushroom farms. n Fungus is grown under environmentally controlled conditions in a mixture of soil and organic matter.