Where Did Agriculture Originate? Origins of agriculture – Agriculture = deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through the cultivation of plants and/or rearing of animals – Cultivate = “to care for” – Crop = any plant cultivated by people

Where Did Agriculture Originate? Origins of agriculture – Hunter-gatherers Perhaps 250,000 remaining today – Invention of agriculture When it began = unclear Diffused from many hearths

Crop Hearths Figure 10-2

Animal Hearths Figure 10-3

Where Did Agriculture Originate? Commercial and subsistence agriculture – Subsistence = produced mainly for the farm family’s survival Most common in LDCs – Commercial = produced mainly for sale off the farm Most common in MDCs

Agriculture and Climate Figure 10-4

Where Did Agriculture Originate? Commercial and subsistence agriculture – Five characteristics distinguish commercial from subsistence agriculture Purpose of farming Percentage of farmers in the labor force Use of machinery Farm size Relationship of farming to other businesses

Agricultural Workers Figure 10-5

Area of Farmland Per Tractor Figure 10-6

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs? Shifting cultivation – Most prevalent in low-latitude, A-type climates – Two features: Land is cleared by slashing and burning debris – Slash-and-burn agriculture Land is tended for only a few years at a time – Types of crops grown vary regionally – Traditionally, land is not owned individually

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs? Pastoral nomadism (herding domesticated animals) – Found primarily in arid and semiarid B-type climates – Animals are seldom eaten The size of the herd indicates power and prestige – Type of animal depends on the region For example, camels are favored in North Africa and Southwest Asia – Transhumance practiced by some pastoral nomads

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs? Intensive subsistence – Found in areas with high population and agricultural densities Especially in East, South, and Southeast Asia To maximize production, little to no land is wasted – Intensive with wet rice dominant – Intensive with wet rice not dominant

Rice Production Figure 10-12

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs? Plantation farming – Found in Latin America, Africa, and Asia – Products are grown in LDCs but typically are sold to MDCs – Plantations specialize in one or two cash crops Important crops = coffee, sugarcane, cotton, rubber, and tobacco – A large labor force is usually needed in sparsely settled regions

Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs? Mixed crop and livestock farming – Most land = devoted to crops – Most profits = derive from the livestock Dairy farming – Regional distribution: the milkshed – Two primary challenges Labor-intensive Expense of winter feed

Corn (Maize) Production Figure 10-15

Milk Production Figure 10-17

Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs? Grain farming – The largest commercial producer of grain = the United States Livestock ranching – Practiced in marginal environments Mediterranean agriculture – Based on horticulture Commercial gardening and fruit farming – Truck farms

Wheat Production Figure 10-19

Meat Production Figure 10-21

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties? Challenges for commercial farmers – Access to markets is important The von Thünen model (1826) – The choice of crop to grow is related to the proximity to the market Figure 10-24

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties? Challenges for commercial farmers – Overproduction Agricultural efficiencies have resulted in overproduction Demand has remained relatively constant – As a consequence, incomes for farmers are low – Sustainable agriculture Sensitive land management Integrated crop and livestock

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties? Challenges for subsistence farmers – Population growth – International trade – Drug crops

Drug Trade Figure 10-27

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties? Strategies to increase food supply – Expanding agricultural land Desertification – Increasing productivity The green revolution – Identifying new food sources Cultivating oceans, developing higher-protein cereals, and improving palatability of foods – Increasing trade

Agricultural Land and Population Figure 10-28

Grain Imports and Exports Figure 10-32

Where is Industry Distributed? Origin of industry – From cottage industries to the Industrial Revolution – Impact of the Industrial Revolution especially great on iron, coal, transportation, textiles, chemicals, and food processing

Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution Figure 11-2

Where is Industry Distributed? Industrial regions – Europe Emerged in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries – North America Industry arrived later but spread faster than in Europe – East Asia

Industrial Regions Figure 11-3

Industrial Areas in Europe Figure 11-4

Industrial Areas in North America Figure 11-5

Why Are Situation Factors Important? Proximity to inputs – Bulk-reducing industries – Examples: Copper Steel Figure 11-8

Why Are Situation Factors Important? Proximity to markets – Bulk-gaining industries – Examples: Fabricated metals Beverage production – Single-market manufacturers – Perishable products Figure 11-10

Why Are Situation Factors Important? Ship, rail, truck, or air? – The farther something is transported, the lower the cost per km/mile – Cost decreases at different rates for each of the four modes Truck = most often for short-distance travel Train = used to ship longer distances (1 day +) Ship = slow, but very low cost per km/mile Air = most expensive, but very fast

Why Are Site Factors Important? Labor – The most important site factor – Labor-intensive industries Examples: textiles – Textile and apparel spinning – Textile and apparel weaving – Textile and apparel assembly

Cotton Yarn Production Figure 11-16

Woven Cotton Fabric Production Figure 11-17

Production of Women’s Blouses Figure 11-18

Why Are Site Factors Important? Land – Rural sites – Environmental factors Capital Figure 11-20

Why Are Location Factors Changing? Attraction of new industrial regions – Changing industrial distribution within MDCs Interregional shift within the United States – Right-to-work laws – Textile production Interregional shifts in Europe – Convergence shifts – Competitive and employment regions

Changing U.S. Manufacturing Figure 11-21

Manufacturers of Men’s and Women’s Socks and Hosiery Figure 11-22

European Union Structural Funds Figure 11-23

Why Are Location Factors Changing? Attraction of new industrial regions – International shifts in industry East Asia South Asia Latin America – Changing distributions – Outsourcing

World Steel Production Figure 11-24

Global Production Figure 11-25

Apparel Production and Jobs in the United States Figure 11-26

Why Are Location Factors Changing? Renewed attraction of traditional industrial regions – Proximity to skilled labor Fordist, or mass production Post-Fordist, or lean production Just-in-time delivery

Electronic Computing Manufacturing Figure 11-28

Women’s and Girls’ Cut and Sew Apparel Manufacturing Figure 11-29

Services Service = any activity that fulfills a human want or need Services are located in settlements – Location of services is important for profitability – Affluent regions tend to offer more services – Local diversity is evident in the provision of services

Where Did Services Originate? Three types of services – Consumer services About 44 percent of all jobs in the United States – Business services About 24 percent of all jobs in the United States – Public services About 17 percent of all jobs in the United States – In the United States, all employment growth has occurred in the services sector

Percentage of GDP from Services, 2005 Figure 12-1

Employment Change in the United States by Sector Figure 12-2

Where Did Services Originate? Services in early rural settlements – Early consumer services met societal needs Examples = burial of the dead, religious centers, manufacturing centers – Early public services probably followed religious activities – Early business services to distribute and store food

Where Did Services Originate? Services in early urban settlements – Services in ancient cities Earliest urban settlements (e.g., Ur), Athens, Rome – Services in medieval cities Largest settlements were in Asia European cities developed with feudalism

Where Are Contemporary Services Located? Services in rural settlements – Half of the world’s population lives in rural settlements – Two types Clustered rural settlements – Circular or linear – Clustered settlements in Colonial America Dispersed rural settlements – In the United States – In Great Britain » Enclosure movement

Rural Settlement Patterns Figure 12-10

Where Are Contemporary Services Located? Services in urban settlements – Differences between urban and rural settlements Large size High density Social heterogeneity – Increasing percentage of people in cities – Increasing number of people in cities

Percentage of Population Living in Urban Settlements Figure 12-14

Urban Settlements With Populations of at Least 3 Million Figure 12-15

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern? Central place theory – First proposed by Walter Christaller (1930s) – Characteristics A central place has a market area (or hinterland) – Size of a market area Range Threshold

“Daily Urban Systems” Figure 12-16

Central Place Theory Figure 12-17

Market Areas, Range, and Threshold for Kroger Supermarkets Figure 12-18

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern? Market-area analysis – Profitability of a location Compute the range Compute the threshold Draw the market area – Optimal location within a market Best location in a linear settlement Best location in a nonlinear settlement

Optimal Location for a Pizza-Delivery Service Figure 12-20

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern? Hierarchy of services and settlements – Nesting Market areas in MDCs = a series of hexagons of various sizes – Rank-size distribution of settlements Primate city rule – Primate cities – Periodic markets

Central Place Theory Figure 12-21

Rank-Size Distribution in the United States and Indonesia Figure 12-23

Why Do Business Services Cluster in Large Settlements? Hierarchy of business services – Services in world cities Business: clustering of services is a product of the Industrial Revolution Consumer: retail services with extensive market areas – May include leisure services of national importance due to large thresholds, large ranges, and the presence of wealthy patrons. Public: world cities are often the center of national or international political power

World Cities Figure 12-25

Why Do Business Services Cluster in Large Settlements? Business services in LDCs – Offshore financial services Two functions: – Taxes – Privacy – Back offices LDCs are attractive because of: – Low wages – Ability to speak English

Why Do Business Services Cluster in Large Settlements? Economic base of settlements – Two types: Basic industries Nonbasic industries – Specialization of cities in different services – Distribution of talent

Economic Base of U.S. Cities Figure 12-28

Geography of Talent Figure 12-29

Why Do Services Cluster Downtown? CBD land uses – Central business districts (CBDs) – Retail services in the CBD Retailers with a high threshold Retailers with a high range Retailers serving downtown workers – Business services in the CBD

CBD of Charlotte, NC Figure 13-1

Why Do Services Cluster Downtown? Competition for land in the CBD – High land costs Some of the most expensive real estate in the world = Tokyo Intensive land use – Underground areas Skyscrapers – “Vertical geography”

Why Do Services Cluster Downtown? Activities excluded from the CBD – Lack of industry in the CBD Modern factories require large, one-story parcels of land – Lack of residents in the CBD Push and pull factors involved CBDs outside North America – Less dominated by commercial considerations.

Where Are People Distributed in Urban Areas? Models of urban structure – Are used to explain where people live in cities – Three models, all developed in the city of Chicago Concentric zone model Sector model Multiple nuclei model

Concentric Zone Model Figure 13-4

Sector Model Figure 13-5

Multiple Nuclei Model Figure 13-6

Where Are People Distributed in Urban Areas? Geographic application of the models – Models can be used to show where different social groups live in the cities Census tracts Social area analysis – Criticism of the models Models may be too simple Models may be outdated

Where Are People Distributed in Urban Areas? Applying the models outside North America – European cities – Less developed countries Colonial cities Cities since independence Squatter settlements

Income Distribution in the Paris Region Figure 13-10

Model of a Latin American City Figure 13-14

Why Do Inner Cities Face Distinctive Challenges? Inner-city physical issues – Most significant = deteriorating housing Filtering Redlining – Urban renewal – Public housing – Renovated housing Gentrification

Racial Change in Chicago Figure 13-16

Why Do Inner Cities Face Distinctive Challenges? Inner-city social issues – The underclass An unending cycle of social and economic issues Homelessness – Culture of poverty

Why Do Inner Cities Face Distinctive Challenges? Inner-city economic issues – Eroding tax base Cities can either reduce services or raise taxes – Impact of the recession Housing market collapse

Foreclosures in Baltimore Figure 13-18

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges? Urban expansion – Annexation – Defining urban settlements The city Urbanized areas Metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) – Metropolitan divisions – Micropolitan statistical areas

Annexation in Chicago Figure 13-19

City, Urbanized Area, and MSA of St. Louis Figure 13-20

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges? Urban expansion – Local government fragmentation Council of government Consolidations of city and county governments Federations – Overlapping metropolitan areas

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges? Peripheral model – Edge cities – Density gradient – Cost of suburban sprawl Suburban segregation – Residential segregation – Suburbanization of businesses

Density Gradient Figure 13-23

Suburban Stress Figure 13-25

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges? Transportation and suburbanization –Motor vehicles More than 95 percent of all trips = made by car –Public transit Advantages of public transit –Transit travelers take up less space –Cheaper, less pollutant, and more energy efficient than an automobile –Suited to rapidly transport large number of people to small area Public transit in the United States –Used primarily for rush-hour community for workers into and out of CBD –Small cities-minimal use –Most Americans prefer to commute by automobile

Subway and Tram Lines in Brussels, Belgium Figure 13-28

Why Are Resources Being Depleted? Energy resources – Animate versus inanimate power – Energy supply and demand Five-sixths of the world’s energy supply comes from coal, natural gas, and oil – Finiteness of natural resources Renewable versus nonrenewable resources – Proven reserves – Potential reserves

Per Capita Energy Consumption Figure 14-1

U.S. Energy Consumption Figure 14-2

Outlook for World Petroleum Production Figure 14-3

Coal Production Figure 14-4

Proven Reserves of Fossil Fuels Figure 14-5

Why Are Resources Being Depleted? Energy resources – Uneven distribution of fossil fuels Location of reserves – Consumption of fossil fuels – Control of world petroleum OPEC Changing supply and demand

Why Are Resources Being Depleted? Mineral resources – Metallic or nonmetallic Nonmetallic = 90 percent of extraction is for building stone Ferrous metallic minerals = iron ore, chromium, manganese Nonferrous metallic minerals = aluminum, copper, zinc – Precious metals = gold, silver, platinum

Why Are Resources Being Polluted? Air pollution – Global scale Global warming – Greenhouse effect – The ozone layer and CFCs – Regional scale Acid precipitation and acid deposition – Local scale Carbon monoxide Hydrocarbons and photochemical smog Particulates

Global Warming Figure 14-15

Acid Deposition in North America & Europe Figure 14-18

Smog in Mexico City Figure 14-19

Why Are Resources Being Polluted? Water pollution – Sources Agriculture Water-using industries Municipal uses – Impact on aquatic life Biochemical oxygen demand Wastewater and disease

Why Are Resources Being Polluted? Land pollution – Solid-waste disposal Sanitary landfills – Two alternatives to landfills: incineration and recycling – Hazardous waste disposal In 2007 = about 47 million tons disposed of in the United States

Why Are Resources Being Polluted? Renewing resources – Nuclear energy Potential accidents Radioactive wastes Bomb material Limited uranium reserves High cost

Percentage of Electricity Generated from Nuclear Power Figure 14-23

Why Are Resources Being Reused? Renewing resources – Leading renewable energy resources Biomass Hydroelectric power Wind power Geothermal energy Solar energy – Active – Passive Renewable energy in motor vehicles

Electricity From Hydroelectric Power Figure 14-26

Why Are Resources Being Reused? Recycling resources – In the United States recycling has steadily increased since 1970 – Recycling collection Pick-up and processing – Recyclables are collected in four ways: curbside, drop-off, buy-back, and/or deposit Manufacturing of recycled products

Sources of Solid Waste Figure 14-30

Why Are Resources Being Reused? Recycling resources – Other pollution reduction strategies Reducing discharges Increasing environmental capacities – Comparing pollution reduction strategies It seems clear that consumers must learn to use/waste less for a safer, cleaner environment

A Coking Plant Figure 14-32

Why Should Resources Be Conserved? Sustainable development – Improving quality of life while preserving resources for future generations – Conservation Sustainable use and management of resources – Preservation Maintenance of resources in their present condition – Impact on economic growth

Sustainable Development Figure 14-33

Pollution Compared to a Country’s Wealth Figure 14-34

Why Should Resources be Conserved? Biodiversity – Geographic biodiversity versus biological biodiversity Biologists = most concerned with genetic diversity Geographers = most concerned with biogeographic diversity – Biodiversity in the tropics Occupy 6 percent of Earth’s land area but contain more than 50 percent of all species