1 Drug-Related Crime Trevor Bennett University of Glamorgan

2 Definition What is ‘drug-related crime’? What is ‘drug-related crime’?

3 Definition The term was first introduced in a government policy document in 1994 and was defined as... The term was first introduced in a government policy document in 1994 and was defined as... “…not only the offence of supply and possession of illegal drugs but also other criminal activity directly or indirectly associated with drug misuse” “…not only the offence of supply and possession of illegal drugs but also other criminal activity directly or indirectly associated with drug misuse” Home Office (1994) Tackling Drugs Together: A Consultation Document on a Strategy for England London: HMSO Home Office (1994) Tackling Drugs Together: A Consultation Document on a Strategy for England London: HMSO

4 Definition The definition was elaborated in a follow-up document published in 1995 The definition was elaborated in a follow-up document published in 1995 Home Office (1995) Tackling Drugs Together: A Strategy for England London: HMSO. Home Office (1995) Tackling Drugs Together: A Strategy for England London: HMSO. In this it was stated that drug-related crime included all offences committed under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse. In this it was stated that drug-related crime included all offences committed under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse. These included crimes directly connected to drug use such as burglary and theft and crimes indirectly connected such as laundering of profits of drug sales and systemic crimes associated with drug trafficking. These included crimes directly connected to drug use such as burglary and theft and crimes indirectly connected such as laundering of profits of drug sales and systemic crimes associated with drug trafficking.

5 Definition These definitions identify 3 types of drug crime. These definitions identify 3 types of drug crime. ‘Drug offences’ which refer to crimes covered by drug legislation (e.g. drug supply and possession) ‘Drug offences’ which refer to crimes covered by drug legislation (e.g. drug supply and possession) ‘Offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse’ (e.g. burglary and theft) ‘Offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse’ (e.g. burglary and theft) ‘Systemic’ crimes which refer to offences indirectly caused by drug use (e.g. money laundering and drug trafficking) ‘Systemic’ crimes which refer to offences indirectly caused by drug use (e.g. money laundering and drug trafficking)

6 Definition These 3 types can also be found in the definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) in 2003 These 3 types can also be found in the definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) in 2003

7 Definition The official definitions are fairly clear The official definitions are fairly clear But the term ‘drug-related crime’ is sometimes used in different ways But the term ‘drug-related crime’ is sometimes used in different ways

8 Definition The Home Office 2007 consultation paper reported that drug-related crime was decreasing and used as evidence the number of acquisitive crimes Home Office (2007) Drugs: Our Community, Your Say: A Consultation Paper. London: Home Office. Home Office (2007) Drugs: Our Community, Your Say: A Consultation Paper. London: Home Office. “Drug-related crime is falling – recorded acquisitive crime has fallen by 20 per cent since the introduction of the Drug Interventions Programme” This equates ‘drug-related crime’ with the second category of offences committed as a consequence of drug use

9 Definition It might help if some agreed terms were developed that covered the three types of offences individually and as a group Drug crime or Drug-related crime Drug offences (e.g. supply) Drug-related crime (e.g. theft to pay for drugs) or Crimes committed as a consequence of drug use Systemic crime (e.g. money laundering)

10 Definition A second problem is whether the second type of ‘drug-related crime’ refers to a causal connection The early Tackling Drug Misuse documents suggested a causal connection in the phrases... The early Tackling Drug Misuse documents suggested a causal connection in the phrases... “offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse” “offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse” “These included crimes directly connected to drug use such as burglary and theft “These included crimes directly connected to drug use such as burglary and theft

11 Definition This was also suggested in the 2003 definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) This was also suggested in the 2003 definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)

12 Definition It seems clear from these definitions that the second type of ‘drug-related crime’ requires a causal connection between drug use and crime It seems clear from these definitions that the second type of ‘drug-related crime’ requires a causal connection between drug use and crime This would prove quite challenging when it comes to measuring ‘drug-related crime’ This would prove quite challenging when it comes to measuring ‘drug-related crime’ Not all ‘acquisitive crime’ will be connected to drug use Not all ‘acquisitive crime’ will be connected to drug use Not all crimes committed by ‘drug users’ will be connected to their drug use Not all crimes committed by ‘drug users’ will be connected to their drug use In order to measure ‘drug-related crime’ it would be necessary to know the motivation for it In order to measure ‘drug-related crime’ it would be necessary to know the motivation for it

13 Research on drug-related crime It might be useful to consider the research implications connected to this discussion It might be useful to consider the research implications connected to this discussion One implication is that more needs to be known about the causal connection between drug use and crime One implication is that more needs to be known about the causal connection between drug use and crime

14 Research on drug-related crime This is the conclusion that has been reached among policy makers in the United States This is the conclusion that has been reached among policy makers in the United States In 2001 the US National Institute of Justice established a forum for researchers to propose a drugs and crime research agenda for the 21st century In 2001 the US National Institute of Justice established a forum for researchers to propose a drugs and crime research agenda for the 21st century BROWNSTEIN, H. and CROSLAND, C. (2003), Toward a Drugs and Crime Research Agenda for the 21st Century. National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC. BROWNSTEIN, H. and CROSLAND, C. (2003), Toward a Drugs and Crime Research Agenda for the 21st Century. National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC. One of the aims of the forum was to discuss the usefulness of Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual framework for explaining ‘drug-related crime’ One of the aims of the forum was to discuss the usefulness of Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual framework for explaining ‘drug-related crime’

15 Research on drug-related crime Goldstein’s conceptual framework divided explanations of the connection into three groups... Goldstein’s conceptual framework divided explanations of the connection into three groups... ‘Economic-compulsive’ crime was committed as a means of generating money to support drug use. ‘Economic-compulsive’ crime was committed as a means of generating money to support drug use. ‘Psychopharmacological’ crime occurred when the use of drugs resulted in change or impairment in cognitive functioning. ‘Psychopharmacological’ crime occurred when the use of drugs resulted in change or impairment in cognitive functioning. ‘Systemic’ crime was associated with crime that occurred as part of the system of drug distribution and use. ‘Systemic’ crime was associated with crime that occurred as part of the system of drug distribution and use. Goldstein, P. (1985), ‘The Drugs/Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Conceptual Framework’, Journal of Drug Issues, 15: Goldstein, P. (1985), ‘The Drugs/Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Conceptual Framework’, Journal of Drug Issues, 15:

16 Research on drug-related crime There have been some criticisms of this framework There have been some criticisms of this framework One is that the tripartite categories are not mutually exclusive (e.g. systemic crimes might also be economically motivated) One is that the tripartite categories are not mutually exclusive (e.g. systemic crimes might also be economically motivated) Another is that the systemic model is not applicable to the majority of young drug users who are not involved in the high-level drug distribution system (i.e. systemic crimes). Another is that the systemic model is not applicable to the majority of young drug users who are not involved in the high-level drug distribution system (i.e. systemic crimes).

17 Research on drug-related crime One of the conclusions of the NIJ forum was that Goldstein’s framework needed to be updated. One of the conclusions of the NIJ forum was that Goldstein’s framework needed to be updated. In particular more needed to be known about... In particular more needed to be known about... the causal connection between drug use and crime the causal connection between drug use and crime how it varied across drug types and offence types how it varied across drug types and offence types how it varied across demographic factors how it varied across demographic factors

18 Research on drug-related crime A couple of years ago Katy Holloway and I began some unfunded interview-based research on the causal connection between drug use and crime. A couple of years ago Katy Holloway and I began some unfunded interview-based research on the causal connection between drug use and crime. The aim of the research was to describe and explain the various mechanisms that linked drug use and crime. The aim of the research was to describe and explain the various mechanisms that linked drug use and crime. This results of this have just been published. This results of this have just been published. Bennett, T. H. and Holloway, K. (2009) ‘The causal connection between drug use and crime’. British Journal of Criminology. doi: /bjc/azp014. (Advanced access April 2009). Bennett, T. H. and Holloway, K. (2009) ‘The causal connection between drug use and crime’. British Journal of Criminology. doi: /bjc/azp014. (Advanced access April 2009).

19 Research on drug-related crime The research was conducted in three prisons (2 in Wales and 1 in England) The research was conducted in three prisons (2 in Wales and 1 in England) In two prisons, respondents were selected from within the CARAT scheme. In two prisons, respondents were selected from within the CARAT scheme. In the third prison, respondents were selected from a particular wing. In the third prison, respondents were selected from a particular wing. In total, we interviewed 41 prisoners. In total, we interviewed 41 prisoners. The respondents were all males with an age range of 22 to 56. The respondents were all males with an age range of 22 to 56. Their main offences were: drug offences, assault and robbery Their main offences were: drug offences, assault and robbery The main method of data collection was a semi-structured interview. The main method of data collection was a semi-structured interview. Offenders were asked to describe some of their connections in detail. Offenders were asked to describe some of their connections in detail. In total, 133 detailed narratives of specific drug-crime connections were identified and analysed. In total, 133 detailed narratives of specific drug-crime connections were identified and analysed.

20 Research on drug-related crime The first thing we did was to ask offenders whether any of ten drug types and ten crime types have ever been connected. The first thing we did was to ask offenders whether any of ten drug types and ten crime types have ever been connected. The most common connections reported were heroin and drug dealing, burglary dwelling and handling The most common connections reported were heroin and drug dealing, burglary dwelling and handling

21 Research on drug-related crime We then asked them to describe (up to three) specific occasions when their drug use and crime were connected We then asked them to describe (up to three) specific occasions when their drug use and crime were connected In total we transcribed 133 narratives of specific drug-crime connections In total we transcribed 133 narratives of specific drug-crime connections These were grouped initially into Goldstein’s three categories These were grouped initially into Goldstein’s three categories These were then adjusted or expanded until all narratives would be categorised These were then adjusted or expanded until all narratives would be categorised

22 Research on drug-related crime The main change to Goldstein’s framework was to replace the ‘systemic crime’ category with a ‘lifestyles’ category The main change to Goldstein’s framework was to replace the ‘systemic crime’ category with a ‘lifestyles’ category This was because it was not only drug lifestyle factors that influenced the connection This was because it was not only drug lifestyle factors that influenced the connection It was also influenced by crime lifestyle factors as well as cultural factors It was also influenced by crime lifestyle factors as well as cultural factors

23 Results

24 Research on drug-related crime Economic mechanisms Economic mechanisms ‘Obtaining drugs directly’ ‘Obtaining drugs directly’ “…I decided if I was going to still take heroin I’d either always have it or I wouldn’t take it no more. So I decided to start dealing it.” (085) “…I decided if I was going to still take heroin I’d either always have it or I wouldn’t take it no more. So I decided to start dealing it.” (085) ‘Saving legal money for drugs’ ‘Saving legal money for drugs’ “Most of my shoplifting is around, I would say, clothes. I could be out shopping and I’ll take something. I might spend two, three hundred pound and steal a hundred pound.... the money I save not buying, that goes back into my drugs.” (018) “Most of my shoplifting is around, I would say, clothes. I could be out shopping and I’ll take something. I might spend two, three hundred pound and steal a hundred pound.... the money I save not buying, that goes back into my drugs.” (018)

25 Research on drug-related crime Economic mechanisms Economic mechanisms Most frequently mentioned Most frequently mentioned Drug dealing (85%) Drug dealing (85%) Shoplifting (74%) Shoplifting (74%) Robbery (71%) Robbery (71%) Least frequently mentioned Least frequently mentioned Handling (33%) Handling (33%) Assault (0%) Assault (0%)

26 Research on drug-related crime Pharmacological mechanisms Pharmacological mechanisms ‘Aggression’ ‘Aggression’ “...with ecstasy I’m just violent if someone winds me up. It’s a very different head on. Different drug. Ecstasy is a bad choice for violence.” (026) “...with ecstasy I’m just violent if someone winds me up. It’s a very different head on. Different drug. Ecstasy is a bad choice for violence.” (026) ‘Courage to offend’ ‘Courage to offend’ “Pretty much when I used to take loads of valium, it used to make me feel invincible and I would just go and starts robbing just for the fact that I thought I could and I’d get away with it... I thought I was invisible and no one would see me.” (004) “Pretty much when I used to take loads of valium, it used to make me feel invincible and I would just go and starts robbing just for the fact that I thought I could and I’d get away with it... I thought I was invisible and no one would see me.” (004)

27 Research on drug-related crime Pharmacological mechanisms Pharmacological mechanisms Most frequently mentioned Most frequently mentioned Assault (91%) Assault (91%) Burglary dwelling (46%) Burglary dwelling (46%) Least frequently mentioned Least frequently mentioned Drug dealing (12%) Drug dealing (12%) Handling (0%) Handling (0%)

28 Research on drug-related crime Lifestyle mechanisms Lifestyle mechanisms ‘Criminal contacts’ ‘Criminal contacts’ “…you get to know the people, coz it’s all related around that sort of thing init know what I mean, drugs and crime and all that…” (035) “…you get to know the people, coz it’s all related around that sort of thing init know what I mean, drugs and crime and all that…” (035) ‘Offended for treatment’ ‘Offended for treatment’ “[I was] drinking and doing drugs, I had become homeless, I had lost everything. And I couldn’t see no way out.... I had heard through you know other people, that if you go through prison they have to give you a place when you get out. So, I done it on purpose really.” (028) “[I was] drinking and doing drugs, I had become homeless, I had lost everything. And I couldn’t see no way out.... I had heard through you know other people, that if you go through prison they have to give you a place when you get out. So, I done it on purpose really.” (028)

29 Research on drug-related crime Lifestyle mechanisms Lifestyle mechanisms Most frequently mentioned Most frequently mentioned Handling (67%) Handling (67%) Least frequently mentioned Least frequently mentioned Burglary (0%) Burglary (0%) Robbery (0%) Robbery (0%) Shoplifting (0%) Shoplifting (0%)

30 Conclusion Goldstein’s categories stood up fairly well across a range of offence and drug types Goldstein’s categories stood up fairly well across a range of offence and drug types But... But... The systemic category was too narrow The systemic category was too narrow The lack of causal direction was limiting The lack of causal direction was limiting The absence of more detailed category breakdowns The absence of more detailed category breakdowns The absence of crime breakdowns The absence of crime breakdowns The absence of demographic breakdowns The absence of demographic breakdowns

31 Conclusion In order to understand ‘drug-related crime’ there is a need for more research on... In order to understand ‘drug-related crime’ there is a need for more research on... the nature of the causal relationship the nature of the causal relationship the mechanisms linking drug use and crime the mechanisms linking drug use and crime It is likely that... It is likely that... there are many more causal mechanisms linking drug use and crime there are many more causal mechanisms linking drug use and crime there is variation in the mechanisms across location and time there is variation in the mechanisms across location and time there is variation by drug and crime types there is variation by drug and crime types there is variation by demographic factors. there is variation by demographic factors.

32 Conclusion End! End!