British Political Culture & What Britons Quarrel About

Characteristics of Political Culture Legitimacy of British gov’t evidenced by willingness of English people to obey law Britain’s police force is smaller than most advanced democracies Crimes tend to be based on individual violence, not against state Except Northern Ireland – IRA More recently - terrorism

Noblesse oblige and social class Duty of upper classes to take responsibility for welfare of lower classes Dates to feudal times Today is reflected in general willingness of British to accept a welfare state (i.e. National Health Service) Idea challenged by conservatism of Thatcher

Multi-nationalism Relatively large amount of cultural homogeneity English common language, but spoken w/ different dialects Religious differences between Catholics & Protestants Includes England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, which in past have been different countries By 18th century – England ruled entire island, becoming “Great Britain” In early 20th century – Northern Ireland added, creating “United Kingdom”

England: largest region; contains majority of population English have dominated other nationalities Still have disproportionate share of political power Challenge: integrate nationalities into country as a whole, but at same time allow them to keep old identities

Wales: subject to English king in 16th century Modern Welsh pride is reflected in their flag – the Plaid Cymru political party – language is still alive Accepted English authority years ago, but some resentment remains & feelings of being exploited by richer neighbors

Scotland: existed as separate country until early 1600s Joined w/ England not through conquest, but by marriage – Queen Elizabeth I died w/o an heir in 1603, throne went to nephew James I, who also happened to be king of Scotland 100 years later, both agreed to single Parliament in London Have strong national identity, think of themselves as different from English – national flag, Scottish Parliament has recently been revived

Northern Ireland: religious arguments Oliver Cromwell tried to impose Protestantism w/o success in Catholic Ireland English claims to Irish lands were settled shortly after WWI – granted home rule (except NE corner where Protestants outnumbered Catholics) Home rule came b/c of Irish Republican Army (IRA) In 1949, bulk of Ireland became totally independent country

Social Class Distinctions Most important divide today: between working & middle classes Not easily separated by income; psychologically & subjectively gulf is still wide Difference explained in terms of solidarity – keeping the old job in the old neighborhood, sense of family – more important than individual success

Divisions reinforced by education system “public schools” originally intended to train boys for “public life” in the military, civil service, politics Are expensive – educated young people to continue after parents as members of ruling elite Large # of elite go to “public” boarding schools Middle classes commonly attend private grammar day schools Only 65% of British 17 year olds are still in school, the lowest level of any industrialized democracy Most important portal for elite classes is through Oxford & Cambridge Universities (Oxbridge) Nearly ½ of all Conservative MPs went to Oxbridge ¼ of all Labour MPs went to Oxbridge %s in cabinet positions and PMs even higher Since WWII, higher education more widespread than before thanks to scholarships

Ethnic Minorities Only 7.1% of non-European origin Main minority groups: Indian, Pakistani, Afro-Caribbean, Black African Immigration restrictions from Thatcher administration; currently under debate but Labour has let restrictions remain in place British often accused of adjusting poorly to new ethnic populations Some evidence that whites are leaving London to settle in suburbs, meaning higher % minority in London

Britain’s risk for home-grown terrorism greater than many other countries b/c: Distinct minority / majority cleavages: Muslims have identity as a minority distinct from well-established majority In contrast, many people in U.S. are immigrants, & majority ethnicity of white Americans has already become a minority in many U.S. cities Social class difference of Muslims in U.S., many Muslims tend to be relatively well-off, while many British Muslims are disaffected & unemployed Childhood experiences not endeared them to British culture

Pakistani Muslims: b/c bin Laden & al Qaeda under protection of Pakistan, some thing the links of British Muslims to al Qaeda stronger than in other European countries Opposition to war in Iraq: many British citizens are hostile toward war may be helping radicalize young Muslims who appear to believe British gov’t supporting U.S. in war against Islam Lack of integration of minorities: alienation of minorities in Britain may be higher than in other countries b/c national culture has not absorbed the groups into mainstream culture

Political Beliefs and Values 1960s – political scientists Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba – wrote that civic culture (political culture) in Britain characterized by Trust Deference to authority and competence Pragmatism Harmony Economic crisis in 1970s, continuing conflict in Northern Ireland have challenged this view of citizenship in Britain

Reflect what Almond & Verba saw as good qualities for democratic participation: High % of people vote in elections Acceptance of authority Tolerance for different points of view Acceptance of the rules of the game But during 1970s, social & economic changes altered these characteristics so that today British are less supportive of collective consensus & more inclined to values of a free market economy Observers believe politics of protest have become more acceptable (tendency to disagree openly & sometimes violently w/ gov’t)

Manifestations of changing political beliefs & values: Decreasing support for labor unions – strikes during 1970s led to public opinion turning against them, viewing them as bullies Thatcher’s tough stance to unions intensified strife between unions & Conservative gov’t Labour has moved more to middle to diversity its appeal to non-union voters Increased violence regarding Northern Ireland – Jan 1972: British military killed 13 Catholics IRA & Protestant paramilitaries stepped up campaigns of violence In recent years groups have consented to negotiation w/ gov’t, but threat of violence remains

Thatcherism – Conservative Party controlled gov’t from 1979 – 1997 Her “revolution” to a free market economy affected political attitudes Rejected collectivism & emphasis on redistribution of resources from rich to poor Fostered entrepreneurial values of individualism & competition over solidarity of social classes & noblesse oblige New Labour – Tony Blair & Labour party loosened ties to labor unions & “Good Friday” Agreement on Northern Ireland reached in 1998; parties more inclined to “third way” Protests over Iraq War – citizens & political leaders vocally opposed to war Many Labour MPs w/drew support for Blair Resistance to party leadership extended to cabinet, several party leaders resigning their posts, despite strong tradition of collective consensus

Voting Behavior Voters have less party loyalty than they used to But voting still tied by social class & region Social Class – traditionally working class voted Labour, middle class voted Conservative Today – lines are blurred b/c parties have changed, coming back to the center (“third way” after extremes in 1970s & 80s) Statistics show that Labour in 1997, 2001, 2005, support strongest from people who feel disadvantaged: Scots, Welsh, poor Regional factors – Labour party does well in urban & industrial areas, Scotland, Wales; Conservatives usually win in England, esp. in rural & suburban areas

Public Policy & Current Issues For now, Labour has solid majority, w/ enough votes to continue course they have followed since 1997 Issues confronting British political system today: Evolving relationship between gov’t & economy British relationships w/ EU Direction of post-Blair policy Terrorism Devolution and constitutional reforms

Evolving Relationship between government & the economy Historical basis for Britain’s political economy – liberalism – philosophy that emphasizes political & economic freedoms for individuals & markets Until 1970s – collective consensus – philosophy based on social democratic values that support gov’t control of economy, including nationalization of major industries Keynesianism: gov’t took action to secure full employment, expand social services, maintain steady rate of growth, keep prices stable Thatcher introduced neo-liberalism – revival old political / economic philosophy of liberalism of earlier years Since Thatcher – “a middle way” a.k.a. “third way”

Blair teamed w/ Gordon Brown (then chancellor the exchequer) to develop direction of political economy By 2001 – had brought misery index (inflation + unemployment) to new lows! Income taxes remain steady, but provide welfare programs Debate over these public services, i.e. National Health Service (NHS), as private medical care is becoming more common

British Relationships w/ EU Insularity means tends to keep allies at a distance Reluctant to join Common Market (precursor of EU) – didn’t join until 1978 But Thatcher opposed to rapid integration of European markets (esp. using the euro) PM John Major: signed Maastricht Treaty (created EU) PM Tony Blair: still more favorable to EU, but backed away from commitment In 2005 Blair promised future referenda from new EU constitution and euro Referenda didn’t take place while Blair in office – still haven’t Conservatives split over involvement in EU Polls show majority of public still wants to hold onto pound

Direction of Post-Blair Policy Most citizens were relieved to end controversy over his policies, esp. war in Iraq Admirers point out Stabilized British economy Globalization made London one of most dynamic cities in world Schools & hospitals improved Devolution is underway Citizens paying more attention to environment & poverty Future will reveal how much is actually true

Gordon Brown: first elected to Parliament 1983, shadow chancellor of exchequer in years before 1997 Served as chancellor during Blair’s gov’t Was heir-apparent when Blair had to step down Personality more “low-key” than Blair

Terrorism “Over ten years I have watched this [terrorism] grow. (if you had told me a decade ago that I would be tackling terrorism, I would have readily understood, but thought you meant Irish Republican terrorism.)” – Tony Blair Meaning of terrorism has changed since 4 British Muslim suicide bombers attacked London transit system in July 2005 Other major plots in years since

Gordon Brown – affirmed gov’t commitment to nonviolence Gov’t now earmarking $$ for security, a mosque watchdog is in operation, M15 (British security service) keeping track of suspected terrorists Gordon Brown – affirmed gov’t commitment to nonviolence Began pilot curriculum to be taught in some Muslim religious classes emphasizing nonviolence among British Muslims Program has been criticized for singling out young Muslims for civics lessons Trying to isolate extremist minority from moderate majority

Balancing Act Between the US & EU Blair: develop new relationship w/ Europe where UK would play central role Also to keep the special relationship w/ US developed in WWII Seemed successful until Iraq crisis took US in different direction from Paris & Berlin, who were outspoken against invasion Controversy damaged Blair’s vision of UK as “bridge” over Atlantic Damaged relationship w/ France Questioned wisdom of the “special relationship” w/ US Dissent w/in Labour party, & undermined Blair’s popular support Led to Labour losing seats in 2005 elections Led to Blair’s resignation in 2007

Devolution & Constitutional Reforms Still a unitary gov’t, w/ authority from London Continuing desire by Scottish & Welsh for independence & problems w/ Northern Ireland led to development & use of devolution (turning over of some political powers to regional gov’ts) Devolution delayed by Thatcher, supported by Labour 1999 – referenda in Scotland & Wales passed, each has it’s own regional assembly 1998 Good Friday Agreement: set up a parliament for Northern Ireland but was shut down after violence in 2002; reopened 2007

Affect of new parliaments yet to be seen Devolution has also included creation of mayor and general assembly for London, giving city more independence Critics: Devolution should be only one step toward modernizing political system Other reforms under consideration: Written Bill of Rights for citizens Written constitution Freedom of information New electoral system