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Ethnicity, Crime & Deviance There are huge differences between the offending rates of different ethnic groups according to official statistics. This topic examines various theories of ‘ethnicity-based’ offending & highlights the issue the criminal justice system may be discriminative towards certain groups. Your Learning Objectives for this topic are as follows. You Should: > Know the main patterns of ethnicity & criminalisation as shown by different sources of data differences in recorded patterns of offending. > Be able to evaluate sociological explanations of the relationship between ethnicity, offending & criminalisation

Ethnicity and crime Key facts Official statistics say black people are: 7 times more likely to be stopped and searched. 3 ½ times more likely to be arrested. 5 times more likely to be in prison than their white counterparts. Victim studies say black people are more likely to be identified as offenders & most crime is intra –ethnic meaning it takes place among rather than between ethnic groups. Self-report studies conclude that black people have similar rates of offending to whites if not lower. Ethnicity and the criminal justice system 1. Policing Many allegations of oppressive policing from minority ethnic communities are made. Stop and search Lots of stop an search is perhaps due to racism and the targeting of ethnic minorities. 3. Arrests and cautions More likely to be arrested and cautioned perhaps due to a mistrust of police and not admitting to the offence. Ethnicity and crime 4. Prosecution & conviction Crown prosecution Service more likely to drop cases against ethnic minorities. Black and Asian defendants are less likely to be found guilty. 5. Sentencing and Prison Custodial sentences more likely to be given to black offenders. Blacks and Asians over-represented in prisons and more likely to be given longer sentences.

Ethnicity & Crime Like the working-class, teenagers and males, certain ethnic groups are highly represented in official crime statistics compared to others. In 2008, the Ministry of Justice reported that, compared to white people, black people (African Caribbeans) were: >Three and a half times more likely to be arrested > Five times more likely to be in prison > More likely, if found guilty, to receive a custodial sentence. > If arrested, more likely to be charged & face court proceedings than to receive a caution > Three times more likely to be cautioned by police > More likely to be arrested for robbery

In 2008, the Ministry of Justice reported that, compared to white people, Asians were; >Twice as likely to be stopped & searched (mainly for drugs) > More likely to be charged and face court proceedings than to receive a caution. > More likely to receive a custodial sentence if found guilty > More likely to be arrested for fraud & forgery In 2007, 26% of male prisoners and 29% of females were from black & minority ethnic groups despite making up only 9% of the general population. Before continuing, what problems should we be aware of when trying to examine crime rates by ethnic groups? What is meant by the term ‘Generalisation’? We will now look at some sociological explanations of these trends

Neo-Marxism: What do you already know about Neo-Marxist Theory? Gilroy (1982) argues that Black crime, particularly in the 1970s was a form of political resistance against a repressive, racist state (Capitalist State) He denies that there was greater criminality amongst black people than white but the media created a folk-devil of black people which generated deviance amplification….. As such it is important to recall the work of labelling/ interactionist theorists such as: Becker Cohen Young How do each of these sociologists explain high crime rates amongst particular groups? THEORY LINK: Neo-Marxism might be described as a STRUCTURATION THEORY…why?

Criticisms of Neo-Marxist explanation of black crime: > Ignores the fact that much black crime is committed against other black people (not just against the ‘white establishment’. > Ignores that much crime is actually reported by the public, suggesting that it is not the police being racist. Despite these criticisms, this theory is supported by other researchers including Hall et all (1982) in ‘The Whites of Their Eyes. During the 1970s Britain was facing a CRISIS OF HEGEMONY. There was high unemployment, civil unrest in relation to political issues and a high number of strikes. This had the potential to topple ruling-class power and as such the ruling-class needed a SCAPEGOAT – they did this by using the media to create the ‘Black Mugger’……

(Once again the work of Becker, Cohen & Young is important here) By creating a folk-devil and a moral panic (and convincing the public that the ‘Black Mugger’ is to blame for society’s problems), the police are justified in using more aggressive and oppressive tactics against the black community. This in turn creates resentment and hostility against the police which again in turn reinforces existing stereotypes and racism. Due to the hostility developing between the black community and the police, the police begin to implement MILITARY POLICING. This is aggressive, stricter and more repressive policing. See Article: Police accused of misusing terror laws against peaceful protests How might the black community react to such police tactics?

Stereotype the black community as crime prone (Scapegoats) The Effects of Police Prejudice, Military policing and Deviance Amplification (Lea & Young) Racial prejudice & discrimination within the police + Rising Street Crime & Civil Unrest + Unemployment Stereotype the black community as crime prone (Scapegoats) = (Moral Panic Hyped Up by the Media) Alienation of Black Community Mobilisation of Bystanders Military Police Tactics Reduced cooperation with police Collective Resistance from Community Reinforcement of Folk Devil, Moral Panic, Prejudice and Racism

Institutionalised Racism: After the murder of Stephen Lawrence in 1993, the Macpherson Inquiry claimed that the police are characterised by ‘Institutionalised Racism’. ‘The Police operate by procedures, practices and a culture that tends to exclude or to disadvantage non-white people’ This is racism that is not necessarily intentional but that the day-to-day activities of the organisation are based upon racist ideas and practices i.e. Racism is ingrained in the system. See handouts: > ‘Policing & the Law’ > ‘Police Station had “Apartheid Culture” > ‘Black Bishop “Demeaned” by Police Search’

Evidence in Self-Report Studies? Reiner (2000) argues that there exists a ‘Canteen Culture’ amongst the police: a macho, suspicious, racist and mistrusting culture against non-whites. The Metropolitan Black Police Association (2008) warned ethnic minorities not to join the police force because of it’s, ‘…hostile atmosphere where racism is allowed to spread’. Evidence in Self-Report Studies? Offending, Crime & Justice Survey (2003): > White people had highest offence rate > Mugging was higher in the black group, but was rare across all groups > Offences committed in last 12 months: Whites males aged 10-25 more serious offences. > Violence & drug-selling: White response higher than average, Asians were lower than average.

Sharp & Budd (2005) Minority Ethnic Groups & Crime: Findings from the Offending, Crime & Justice Survey : > Out of all ethnic groups, black people were more likely to have contact with the police, been to court & convicted. > This is despite lower levels of offending than whites in general > Black & Asian offenders more likely to be charged than white offenders for similar offences. > Black & Asian offenders less likely to be granted bail. > Black & Asian offenders more likely to be given custodial sentences rather than community punishments Methods Link: > Why might information obtained through Self-Report studies need to be questioned? If you were to investigate institutional racism within the police force which methods would be best to use and why? What sorts of problems might you encounter whilst conducting such research?

Left Realism: What do you know about Realist Theories of crime & Deviance? Lea & Young (1984) accepts that black crime, for some offences, is in fact higher than for whites i.e. it is not just a social construction, an the police and racism cannot be blamed for creating high black crime rates. Instead Lea & Young look at the how many ethnic minority groups suffer from: Marginalisation Relative Deprivation Negative Subcultures What is meant by Marginalisation & Relative Deprivation? Why might ethnic minorities be likely to suffer from these? Why might these things produce subcultures that are detrimental to minority individuals?

Lea & Young argue that individuals react to these factors in different ways yet many black minority groups do in fact react through crime & deviance. Is this approach to Crime and Ethnicity realistic? Can this theory be criticised and if so, how? Bowling & Phillips (2002) support this realist view by pointing out that high levels of poverty and social exclusion could explain why there is a high level of robbery amongst black people. They also argue that despite the fact that Pakistani & Bangledeshi communities also suffer from social exclusion, their low crime rates may well be down to stricter social control within the home and local community which limits their opportunities to offend. How could Rational Choice Theory & Control Theory be linked to these ideas?

Neo-Marxist - Stuart Hall et al (Policing the crisis) Explaining differences in offending Neo-Marxist - Paul Gilroy Black people commit more crime because they resent the cultural experience of colonialism i.e. being taken over and having black slaves sent to Britain to work. This experience causes resentment in young black males which makes them commit crime. Neo-Marxist - Stuart Hall et al (Policing the crisis) Combines Marxism and Labelling theory. Economic conditions in the 1990’s were bad, government look for a scapegoat. Young black muggers are labelled and a moral panic is created about their behaviour in the media. Young black males commit no more crime than any other group but labelling and the economy makes it seem like they do. Left realism Ethnic minorities commit more crime because racism in wider has caused them to be marginalised, coupled with economic exclusion such as high unemployment and poor housing. Left realists don’t believe that racism in the police can account for higher crime because black people have a higher offending rate than Asians. Ethnicity and crime Stephen Lawrence The death of Stephen Lawrence in 1993 by a white gang caused outcry as police botched the investigation. The inquiry called the Macpherson report declared institutional racism in the police. Victimisation Police recorded 61,000 racists incidents while the BCS reports 184,000 many go unreported. People from mixed ethnic backgrounds were more likely to be victims of crimes.

Strain Theory & Anomie (Merton) You should also be familiar with other theories of C&D which can also be applied in relation to Ethnicity & C&D. Apply each of the following theories to the study of Ethnicity & C&D (evaluate the theories as you do this) Strain Theory & Anomie (Merton) Ecology Theory (Park & Burgess) Subcultures & the Working-Classes (Cloward & Ohlin) Working-Class Focal Concerns (Miller) And

Exam style question: ‘Assess Sociological explanations for the over-representation of some minority ethnic groups in criminal statistics’. (24 marks)