1 Of Segmentation, Marginalisation and Exclusion: Sectoral Dimensions of Women's Employment in India's Service Economy Neetha N. Centre for Women’s Development Studies New Delhi

2 Growth patterns of China and India are different Share of services in GDP much higher in India – much above the global norm Global market in services- banking, insurance and other business activities brought out by the ICT revolution has been placed at the centre of growth The growth within the service sector and its employment prospects are not uniform, or its its implications on different categories of workers- given the informality and precariousness associated with such employment.

3 Broad shares Employment elasticity of output in the sector estimated to be 0.55 in (Mehrotra, et.al, 2014) Steady increase in service sector employment – 89.8 million to in and million in Informal employment high at 80 percent in

Broad Sectoral Distribution UrbanTotal MaleFemaleMaleFemale Female share Primary Secondary Services Primary Secondary Services Primary Secondary Services

5 Service sector accounts for about 8 per cent of total female employment in rural areas and 55 per cent in urban areas About 19 per cent of total male employment in rural areas and about 59 percent in urban areas Female share in service employment is only 16.3 in rural areas and 18.7 in urban areas.

Distribution across industrial categories – Total Proportion Changes between and MaleFemaleMaleFemaleFemale share Changes between and Trade hotels and restaurants Transport & storage Modern services – financial and business segment Public administration and defence, compulsory social security Education Health and social work Private households with employed persons Other service activities

7 Distribution of women across various service sector categories Trade, hotels and restaurants still the largest category - decline over time -much faster for females Decline in public administration and defence, compulsory social security, transport and storage Three sectors– education, financial and business activities and private households with employed persons show considerable increase. However women’s share in modern services is only 13 per cent far below that of the other two.

8 Education is found to occupy an important position in terms of its share in total employment as well as changes over time. Women’s share in this sector increased sharply Increase in the proportion of women engaged in private households – largely paid domestic workers. Women’s share of this sector as high as 67 percent and has increased over time.

Distribution across sub-categories of education CategoriesProportionFemale share Primary education (education at the first level) General school education in the first stage of the secondary level (up to Xth standard) without any special subject pre-requisite Pre-primary education (education preceding the first level) General school education in the second stage of the secondary level (Senior/ Higher secondary) giving, in principle, access to higher education Academic tutoring services Higher education in science, commerce, humanity and fine arts leading to a university degree or equivalent

These are sectors which are known to be female dominated – trends reveal clear gender-based segmentation Of all the service sectors, modern services which includes information and communication, financial, real estate, and soft ware services constitute the modern segment and has been the focal point vis-à-vis the discussions on growth and employment Capacity to absorb women in large numbers and its gender transformatory possibilities are often over emphasized 10

The NSS data could be used to provide some broad estimates of the sector, though some overestimation is bound to happen as some of the disaggregate classification could also capture employment which fall beyond the sector In spite of the limitations, these estimates could help in understanding the broader patterns. The subsectors are information and communication, financial and insurance activities, real estate activities, professional scientific and technical activities and administrative and support activities 11

Categories of Business Sector SECTION J: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION Division 58: Publishing activities; Division 59 : Motion picture, video and television programme production, sound recording and music publishing activities; Division 60 : Programming and broadcasting activities, Division 61 : Telecommunications; Division 62 : Computer programming, consultancy and related activities Division 63 : Information service activities SECTION M: FINANCIAL AND INSURANCE ACTIVITIES Division 64: Financial service activities, except insurance and Pension funding; Division 65 : Insurance, reinsurance and pension funding, except compulsory social security; Division 66 : Other financial activities SECTION L : REAL ESTATE ACTIVITIES Division 68: Real estate activities 12

SECTION M : PROFESSIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES Division 69 : Legal and accounting activities; Division 70 : Activities of head offices; management consultancy activities; Division 71 : Architecture and engineering activities; technical testing and analysis; Division 72 : Scientific research and development; Division 73 : Advertising and market research; Division 74 : Other professional, scientific and technical activities; Division 75 : Veterinary activities SECTION N : ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPPORT SERVICE ACTIVITIES Division 77 : Rental and leasing activities; Division 78 : Employment activities; Division 79 : Travel agency, tour operator and other reservation service activities; Division 80 : Security and investigation activities; Division 81 : Services to buildings and landscape activities; Division 82 : Office administrative, office support and other business support activities 13

Distribution across sub sectors of modern sector – Female CategoriesProportionFemale share Monetary intermediation of commercial banks, saving banks, postal savings bank and discount houses Life insurance Writing, modifying, testing of computer program to meet the needs of a particular client excluding web-page designing Accounting, bookkeeping and auditing activities Activities of insurance agents and brokers Legal activities Software installation Other financial service activities, except insurance and pension funding activities, n.e.c Providing software support and maintenance to the clients Advertising Activities of call centres Computer consultancy and computer facilities management activities Providing data entry services Publishing of newspapers Central banking

Female share in this sector is only about 13 per cent Specific sub sectors of concentration - monetary intermediation; life insurance and writing ; modifying, testing of computer program account for about ¼ th of women in the sector – from about 130 subcategories Women’s share highly uneven - share highest in data entry services Male employment in the sector much more dispersed across many sub-sectors though concentration exists 15

Profile of workers across sectors – Age Age cohorts Trade and hotels and restaurantsBusiness servicesEducation Private households with employed persons Below Above

53.5 per cent of women workers in business services in the age group of Increase over time – from 44.4 per cent For all other sectors is the core segment Reflected in the marital status also – business services has the highest share for unmarried as against 19.6 for education Education has the highest proportion of married 17

Profile of workers across sectors – Marital Status Category Trade and hotels and restaurantsBusiness servicesEducation Private households with employed persons Never married Currently married Widowed Divorced & Separated

Profile of workers across sectors- education Category Trade and hotels and restaurantsBusiness servicesEducation Private households with employed persons Below Primary Middle Sec, H. sec. & Diploma Grad. and above

Clear segmentation of women on the basis of education across sectors. Trade and hotels and restaurants & paid domestic work cater to the less educated Business services show high level of education – about 68 percent have education level of graduation and above Provides opportunities for the better educated – capacity to absorb women with various educational attainments limited 20

Social group wise pattern reveals further signs of exclusion 48 per cent of workers in business activities are upper castes followed by OBCs – 35.5 per cent. Pattern same with education 21

Profile of workers across sectors- Social group Category Trade and hotels and restaurantsBusiness servicesEducation Private households with employed persons SC ST OBC Non Muslims Muslims Upper caste Non- Muslims

Quality of Jobs Category Trade and hotels and restaurantsBusiness servicesEducation Private households with employed persons No written job contract Written job contract: for 1 year or less More than 1 year to 3 years More than 3 years

Highly informal with many women workers even within modern sectors and education having no written contract – increasing proportion in business services Proportion of workers with longer contracts have declined in the sector The size of the enterprises however show an expansion with enterprises employing 20 and above workers increased for both business services and education 24

Size of enterprises Category Trade and hotels and restaurantsBusiness servicesEducation Less than & above but less than & above but less than & above Not known

26 Emerging Issues The analysis suggests that modern service sector shows a mixed picture Overall female share is very low and are concentrated in certain segments The larger scenario determined by trade, education and personal and community services which do not offer much hopes. While the proliferation of business activities will certainly draw more into paid jobs, it cannot bring about any major transformation in aggregate employment patterns in the near future given its low base combined with high segmentation, and informal nature of employment. Employment patterns also show exclusionary tendencies rooted in unequal social constructs