The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology Chapter 7 Writing and Literacy 1

Most of us are pretty good at interacting with writing, but we seldom define our terms. Writing: – Graphic representation of language Recording language by visible marks Symbols that convey thought System of storage and retrieval Literacy – The skill of ciphering and deciphering texts 2

How Does Writing Work? Using marks to represent sounds, ideas/meanings – Phonetic sign: mark that represents one or more sounds English sign = the sound [s] Arabic sign = the sound [s] But can also = [z] And = [ks] – Semantic sign: mark that represents specific idea/meaning in English, French, German, Swahili, etc. – Combining phonetic and semantic signs: (English) (French) 3

Classic classifications Based on predominance of sign types – Semantic vs. phonetic signs – Ideographic/logographic vs. syllabic/alphabetic systems Assumed progression from semantic to phonetic This assumption does not hold up in the face of the existing data 4

Contemporary classifications Recognize that all systems use combinations – Pictographic – Rebus – Logographic – Syllabic – Logosyllabic – Alphabetic 5

Even Pictographs must be deciphered Pictures/images represent things – Meanings can be extended Drawing of a sun can equal warmth But extensions require cultural context: Is this a picture of a woman in a skirt, or a man in a kanzu, a Swahili robe? 6

Writing Systems Writing and symbolism – Universal symbols? Arbitrary symbols? What is writing? How does writing work? Kinds of systems Analyzing writing systems Developing/having writing Literacy and representation The ethnography of writing 7

What is Writing? Graphic representation of language – Recording language by visible marks – Symbols that convey thought – System of storage and retrieval Generally considered secondary to speech Complete vs. partial writing systems – Complete: any and all thoughts and words – Partial: limited in what they can convey 8

How Does Writing Work? Using marks to represent sounds, ideas/meanings – Phonetic sign: mark that represents one or more sounds – vs. phonetic symbol: linguistic transcription of a single sound vs. vs. vs. vs. = [s] in English vs. French vs. German – Semantic sign: mark that represents specific idea/meaning in English, French, German, KiSwahili, etc. vs. vs. – Combining phonetic and semantic signs: (English) (French) 9

Kinds of Writing Systems Old-fashioned classifications – Were based on predominance of sign types Semantic vs. phonetic signs Ideographic/logographic vs. syllabic/alphabetic systems – Assumed progression from semantic to phonetic – Are now understood to be ethnocentric Contemporary classifications – Recognize that all systems use combinations Pictographic Rebus Logographic Syllabic Logosyllabic Alphabetic 10

Pictographic “Writing” Pictures/images represent things – drawing of a sun = the sun Pictographs alone are not complete writing systems – Meanings can be extended Drawing of a sun can = warmth Extensions require cultural context: 11

Rebus Writing Picture represents words that sound the same: – Drawing of the sun represents (in English): Sun and Son – Drawing of a star represents (in Sumerian): – [an] = Star, Heaven, Sky-God A major breakthrough in writing – Allows for sentences like Eye sea ewe, Eye c u, Got 2 go Independently discovered in: – Sumeria 3,000 BCE – China 1,500 BCE – Mayan America 0 BCE 12

Logographic Writing Signs stand for words (or ideas) Also called Ideographic – One sign = one word sign for sun = the spoken word “sun” [s ə sign = “at” (in English), “herring” (in Czech) May have evolved from pictographs – Becoming more abstract over time Chinese sign for [ma] horse; Sumerian sign for [an] star 13

Syllabic Writing Signs stand for syllables – A sign for sun = the syllable “sun” [s ə n] sunken, sunder, sundry, sunshine. Cherokee 14

Logosyllabic Writing Signs carry both semantic and phonetic information – Useful when words are written alike – Determinatives help to clarify: Semantic determinatives help to clarify meaning – Chinese [yang] = “sheep” & “ocean” – Semantic determinative for water produces “ocean” Phonetic determinatives help to clarify pronunciation – English = “two” “second” – Phonetic determinative produces “second” 15

Alphabetic Writing Signs stand for individual sounds – e. g., consonants & vowels English sign = the sound [s] Arabic sign = the sound [s] Arabic sign = the sound [a] – Goal not always achieved: English sign = [ks] 16

Beginnings of Alphabetic Writing 17 th century BCE – Akkadians/Phoenecians adapt Sumerian system From CVCV syllabary to tri-consonantal roots – Signs used for consonants (and vowels) » Aleph-bet / Alif-bet 9 th century BCE – Greeks adapt Phoenecian system More vowels, fewer consonants – Reassigning some C signs to Vs » Alpha-bet 17

Khipus A special case – Tying knots into cords Calendrical Economic Historical data – May be a full-blown writing system 18

Analyzing Writing Systems Determine the principles/strategies – Syllabic, alphabetic, etc. Identify units – Graphemes Smallest segment of speech represented in system – Sounds, syllables, whole words – Allographs: predictable variants of graphemes – English print and cursive styles; initial and final shapes – Lexemes/Frames Units of writing surrounded by white space Look for minimal pairs, similarity of shapes – e.g., the Japanese exercise in the Workbook 19

What Does it Mean to Have Writing? Association with “civilization” Does an introduced writing system “count?” – The Lahu example Developing new writing systems How are words put together? CV, CCC, etc Issues of identity – Spelling in the Comoros » French? Arabic? African? Phonemic? Promoting literacy – So what is there to read? 20

Writing, Reading, Identity, Power Learning to read and write Defining literacy – Using what writing system? Defining correctness – Night vs. nite Writing and representation… 21

Writing and Representation Entextualizing speech – Getting words onto paper Questions of representation – Rapid speech – Dialectical speech couahfee; warsh, crick gonna - goin’ - gon’ - gwine – Power and politics in representation Writing “Cousin Joe” 22

Writing and Literacy Defining literacy Promoting literacy – So what is there to read, and who has time to read it? Literacy associated with particular projects Literacy associated with particular skills or types of cognition Understanding the impacts of literacy 23

Literacy and Literacies What does it mean to be literate? – kinds of literacy: print, map, computer Defining literacy – Literacy as technology Autonomous approach – Literacy as practice Practice approach to literacy New Literacy Studies Ethnographic approach – Taking context and experience into account 24

The Consequences of Literacy Literacy and Orality – Abstract, generalizing, context-free, objective – Concrete, particularizing, situational, subjective Bantu abstractness (ubuntu) Vai triliteracy Chinese and Indian literacies Literacy and linguistic awareness – Writing “changes the way we think about language” (Coulmas) 25

Literacy and Permanence Written records vs. oral traditions – Finding archaeological sites in the Comoros – Following clues from oral tradition 26

Literacy in Cross-Cultural Perspective The ethnography of reading/writing – Heath’s practice approach to literacy events – How does reading/writing function in a culture? – What kinds of things are read/written? Letters, cards, lecture notes, PowerPoint slides – Reading/writing styles (and linguistic capital) Trackton, Roadville, Maintown – Ideas about reading/writing When is handwriting preferred to typing? And vice versa – Condolence letters, form letters, job applications 27

Literacy and Power Issues of access – Who should read/write? Issues of colonialism – Destroying Mayan writings – Introducing “book authority” in New Guinea Issues of standardization – Dialects and politics Issues of reform – Changing spellings Americanizing English – Reforming scripts Nationalism and orthography in Ukraine Scriptal change in Turkey 28

Ways of Reading/Writing Linear vs. multimodal reading/writing – The Machine Is Us/ing Us The Machine Is Us/ing Us Public vs. private reading/writing – Blogging Challenges to standardization – L337 – Teh kitteh 29

Creating a Language Optional: – Create an orthography for your language 30

Next: How and When is Language Possible? – Read: Textbook Chapter 8 Workbook/Reader: – Ottenheimer & Ottenheimer (pp ) – Prepare to do: Writing/Discussion Exercises (W/R pp ) Language Creating (W/R p. 171) Conversation partnering (W/R p. 172) 31