HI136 The History of Germany Lecture 13 Manufacturing Consent: Propaganda and Resistance

Economic Revival Respected financier Hjalmar Schacht appointed President of the Reichsbank ( ) & Minister of Economics ( ) – demonstrates the Nazis need to keep big business on side. Schacht given virtual dictatorial powers over the economy. Public works to get people back into employment. Sept. 1934: ‘New Plan’ introduces state control of trade & currency exchange. Bilateral trade agreements with South America and the Balkans. By 1935 Germany had a trade surplus, unemployment was down to 1.7 million and industrial output had risen by 49.5% Hjalmar Schacht ( )

Public Works Reichsautobahnen Yearkmtotal Total: 3896

Source: John Hite & Chris Hinton, Weimar and Nazi Germany (2000)

Education and Youth ‘Co-ordination’ of education system ‘Politically unreliable’ teachers sacked. Curriculum brought into line with Nazi ideology. Youth Organizations: Deutsches Jungvolk (German Young People, DJ) – Boys aged Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth) – Boys aged Jungmädelbund (League of Young Girls) – Girls aged Bund Deutscher Mädel (League of German Girls, BDM) – Girls aged

Work and Leisure Deutsche Arbeitsfront (DAF, German Labour Front). Kraft durch Freude (KdF, Strength through Joy). National Sozialistische Frauenschaft (NSF, National Socialist Womanhood). Deutsches Frauenwerk (German Women’s Enterprise, DFW).

“I view the first task of the new ministry [of Propaganda] as being to establish co-ordination between the Government and the whole people... It is not enough for people to be more or less reconciled to our regime, to be persuaded to adopt a neutral attitude towards us, rather we want to work on people until they have capitulated to us, until they grasp ideologically that what is happening in Germany today is not an end in itself, but a means to an end.” Josef Goebbels, 15 March 1933

Themes Anti-Semitism Anti-Semitism Anti-Bolshevism Anti-Bolshevism Awakening of the German people Awakening of the German people Superiority of the Aryan race Superiority of the Aryan race Mastery of Central Europe (Lebensraum) Mastery of Central Europe (Lebensraum) Volksgemeinschaft (People‘s community) Volksgemeinschaft (People‘s community) Hitler myth Hitler myth

Broadcasting 1933: Reich Radio Company established – a single state broadcaster controlled by the government. 1932: Only 25% of German households owned a radio. Volksempfänger (People’s Receiver) By % of German families have access to a radio, and announcements broadcast by loudspeakers in public places. ‘Radio Wardens’ make sure that people tune in to Nazi propaganda.

The Press Control of the press harder to achieve. Germany had nearly 5,000 different daily newspapers in Eher Verlag (Nazi publisher) bought up papers – it owned 2/3 of the German press by The Government controlled news stories at source through the state news agency, DNB. ‘Editor’s Law’ (Oct. 1933) made editors personally responsible for content. The lounge at the German press club in Berlin, with a picture of Hitler on the Wall.

The Nazi Calendar 30 th January – The Seizure of Power 30 th January – The Seizure of Power 24 th February – The refounding of the Party (1925) 24 th February – The refounding of the Party (1925) First Sunday in March – Heroes Remembrance Day First Sunday in March – Heroes Remembrance Day 20 th April – Hitler’s Birthday 20 th April – Hitler’s Birthday 1 st May – National Day of Labour 1 st May – National Day of Labour Second Sunday in May – Mothering Sunday Second Sunday in May – Mothering Sunday September – Annual Nuremberg Party Rally September – Annual Nuremberg Party Rally 9 th November – Munich Putsch (1923) 9 th November – Munich Putsch (1923)

Reich Ministry Propaganda and Enlightenment Reichskulturkammer (Reich Camber of Culture) TheatreFilmPressFine ArtsMusicLiterature

Above: Working Maidens by Leopold Schmultzer (1940) Left: Sculpture by Josef Thorak (1937)

Nazi Cinema

Opposition in the Third Reich (Sample) Organising a coup Organising a coup Attempting to assassinate Hitler and other leaders Attempting to assassinate Hitler and other leaders Going on strike Going on strike Helping victims of Nazism Helping victims of Nazism Spying for foreign governments Spying for foreign governments Deserting from the armed forces Deserting from the armed forces Committing suicide Committing suicide Emigrating Emigrating Distributing anti-Nazi leaflets Distributing anti-Nazi leaflets Underachieving in the workplace Underachieving in the workplace Publicly criticising the regime, telling anti-Hitler jokes Publicly criticising the regime, telling anti-Hitler jokes Listening to American jazz and the BBC Listening to American jazz and the BBC Not giving the Hitler greeting Not giving the Hitler greeting Refusing to join Nazi organisations Refusing to join Nazi organisations Reading banned Nazi literature Reading banned Nazi literature

George Elser ( ) Dietrich Bonhoeffer ( )

Sophie Scholl ( ) Hans Scholl ( )

Plots against Hitler, May-September 1938: Army plot to depose Hitler. May-September 1938: Army plot to depose Hitler. November 1939: George Esler attempts to assassinate Hitler during the annual commemoration of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. November 1939: George Esler attempts to assassinate Hitler during the annual commemoration of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. 13 March 1943: Attempt to blow up Hitler’s plane. 13 March 1943: Attempt to blow up Hitler’s plane. March 1943-March 1944: Various military plots to assassinate Hitler orchestrated by Colonel Henning von Tresckow and General Friedrich Olbricht. March 1943-March 1944: Various military plots to assassinate Hitler orchestrated by Colonel Henning von Tresckow and General Friedrich Olbricht. 20 July 1944: Plot to kill Hitler with a bomb planted in his military headquarters in East Prussia. 20 July 1944: Plot to kill Hitler with a bomb planted in his military headquarters in East Prussia.

Colonel Claus Schenck von Stauffenberg ( ), in real life (left) and as played by Tom Cruise (right)

The Historiography of Resistance Ongoing debate on the nature, extent and effectiveness of the resistance. Ongoing debate on the nature, extent and effectiveness of the resistance. Used to legitimize post-war states Used to legitimize post-war states East German historians presented Communist resistance as the only anti-Fascist force in Germany. East German historians presented Communist resistance as the only anti-Fascist force in Germany. West German historiography concerned with accusations of ‘collective guilt’ & presented resistance as based on high moral and ethical values, the individual standing up against tyranny. West German historiography concerned with accusations of ‘collective guilt’ & presented resistance as based on high moral and ethical values, the individual standing up against tyranny. 1960s: Hans Mommsen – argued that national-conservative resistance rooted in the anti-democratic right of the 1920s. 1960s: Hans Mommsen – argued that national-conservative resistance rooted in the anti-democratic right of the 1920s. 1970s: Peter Hüttenberger & Martin Broszat – resistance in everyday life. 1970s: Peter Hüttenberger & Martin Broszat – resistance in everyday life. Broszat – Resistenz (immunity): people retain their moral & ethical values without actively challenging the regime. Broszat – Resistenz (immunity): people retain their moral & ethical values without actively challenging the regime. Mommsen – Widerstandpraxis (Resistance Practice): resistance was a process encompassing different forms of dissent as individuals came to reject the regime in its entirety. Mommsen – Widerstandpraxis (Resistance Practice): resistance was a process encompassing different forms of dissent as individuals came to reject the regime in its entirety. Ian Kershaw – Two approaches to the study of resistance: Fundamentalist (dealing with those committed to the overthrow of the regime) and Societal (dealing with dissent in everyday life). Ian Kershaw – Two approaches to the study of resistance: Fundamentalist (dealing with those committed to the overthrow of the regime) and Societal (dealing with dissent in everyday life).