Chapter 7 Climate and Biodiversity

Core Case Study: Different Climates Support Different Life Forms Climate -- long-term temperature and precipitation patterns – determines which plants and animals can live where Tropical: equator, intense sunlight Polar: poles, little sunlight Temperate: in-between tropical and polar

Three Major Climate Zones Figure 7.1: Earth has three major climate zones: tropical, where the climate is generally warm throughout the year (top); temperate, where the climate is not extreme and typically changes in four different annual seasons (middle); and polar, where it is generally cold during both winter and summer seasons (bottom). These differences lead to different types of vegetation such as those found in a hot and wet tropical rain forest in Australia (top), a temperate deciduous forest in the autumn near Hamburg, Germany (middle), and the arctic tundra found in the U.S. state of Alaska during summer (bottom). Fig. 7-1, p. 147

7-1 What Factors Influence Climate? Concept 7-1 Key factors that determine an area’s climate are incoming solar energy, the earth’s rotation, global patterns of air and water movement, gases in the atmosphere, and the earth’s surface features.

The Earth Has Many Different Climates Weather Set of physical conditions in the troposphere (the lower atmosphere): Temperature, precipitation, wind speed, cloud cover, Humidity Time Span: Hours to days Climate Area’s general pattern of atmospheric conditions over periods ranging from 3 decades to thousands of years. Climate is the SUM of weather conditions in a given area, averaged over a long period of time.

Natural Capital: Generalized Map of the Earth’s Current Climate Zones Figure 7.2: Natural capital. This generalized map of the earth’s current climate zones shows the major ocean currents and upwelling areas (where currents bring nutrients from the ocean bottom to the surface). See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Based on this map, what is the general type of climate where you live? Fig. 7-2, p. 149

Arctic Circle Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Antarctic Circle Labrador current Oyashio current North Atlantic drift Alaska current California current North Pacific drift Canaries current Gulf stream Kuroshio current Tropic of Cancer North equatorial current Caribbean current Monsoon Guinea current drift Equatorial counter current South equatorial North equatorial current South equatorial current current Brazil current South equatorial current Tropic of Capricorn West Australian current Peru current East Australian current Benguela current Figure 7.2: Natural capital. This generalized map of the earth’s current climate zones shows the major ocean currents and upwelling areas (where currents bring nutrients from the ocean bottom to the surface). See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Based on this map, what is the general type of climate where you live? West wind drift West wind drift West wind drift Antarctic Circle Polar (ice) Subarctic (snow) Cool temperate Highland Warm ocean current River Warm temperate Dry Tropical Major upwelling zones Cold ocean current Fig. 7-2, p. 149

The Earth Has Many Different Climates Air circulation in lower atmosphere due to Uneven heating of the earth’s surface by sun: Sun hits the earth more directly at the equator, so smaller areas are delivered more heat. At poles the light is indirectly angled so the heat is spread over a larger area. Rotation of the earth on its axis: Equator spins faster than regions north or regions south. Locations farther from the equator spin slower. The atmosphere over these areas are divided into areas called cells. Cells: Distinguished by their differing directions of air movement. 3. Properties of air, water, and land: Heat from the sun evaporates water and transfers heat to the atmosphere. This transfer forms convection cells that circulate heat, air, and moisture from place to place and vertically.

Global Air Circulation Figure 7.3: Global air circulation: The largest input of solar energy occurs at the equator. As this air is heated, it would naturally rise and move toward the poles (left). However, the earth’s rotation deflects this movement of the air over different parts of the earth. This creates global patterns of prevailing winds that help to distribute heat and moisture in the atmosphere and result in the earth’s variety of forests, grasslands, and deserts (right). Fig. 7-3, p. 149

Moist air rises, cools, and releases moisture as rain Polar cap Cold deserts 60°N Air cools and descends at lower latitudes. Evergreen coniferous forest The highest solar energy input is at the equator. Westerlies Temperate deciduous forest and grassland 30°N Northeast trades Hot desert Tropical deciduous forest Warm air rises and moves toward the poles. Solar energy Equator 0° Tropical rain forest Tropical deciduous forest Hot desert Southeast trades 30°S Air cools and descends at lower latitudes. Figure 7.3: Global air circulation: The largest input of solar energy occurs at the equator. As this air is heated, it would naturally rise and move toward the poles (left). However, the earth’s rotation deflects this movement of the air over different parts of the earth. This creates global patterns of prevailing winds that help to distribute heat and moisture in the atmosphere and result in the earth’s variety of forests, grasslands, and deserts (right). Westerlies Temperate deciduous forest and grassland Cold deserts 60°S Polar cap Fig. 7-3, p. 149

Heat released radiates to space Cool, dry air LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE Heat released radiates to space Cool, dry air Condensation and precipitation Falls, is compressed, warms Rises, expands, cools Warm, dry air Hot, wet air Figure 7.4: This diagram illustrates energy transfer by convection in the atmosphere. Convection occurs when warm, wet air rises, then cools and releases heat and moisture as precipitation (right side and top, center). Then the cooler, denser, and drier air sinks, warms up, and absorbs moisture as it flows across the earth’s surface (bottom) to begin the cycle again. Flows toward low pressure, picks up moisture and heat HIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE Moist surface warmed by sun Fig. 7-4, p. 150

Energy Transfer by Convection in the Atmosphere Figure 7.4: This diagram illustrates energy transfer by convection in the atmosphere. Convection occurs when warm, wet air rises, then cools and releases heat and moisture as precipitation (right side and top, center). Then the cooler, denser, and drier air sinks, warms up, and absorbs moisture as it flows across the earth’s surface (bottom) to begin the cycle again. Fig. 7-4, p. 150

The Earth Has Many Different Climates Ocean currents Prevailing winds Earth’s rotation Redistribution of heat from the sun due to differing densities of warm vs. cool water Surface currents and deep currents

Connected Deep and Shallow Ocean Currents Figure 7.5: Connected deep and shallow ocean currents: A connected loop of shallow and deep ocean currents transports warm and cool water to various parts of the earth. This loop, which rises in some areas and falls in others, results when ocean water in the North Atlantic near Iceland is dense enough (because of its salt content and cold temperature) to sink to the ocean bottom, flow southward, and then move eastward to well up in the warmer Pacific. A shallower return current, aided by winds, then brings warmer, less salty, and thus less dense water to the Atlantic. This water then cools and sinks to begin this extremely slow cycle again. Question: How do you think this loop affects the climates of the coastal areas around it? Fig. 7-5, p. 150

Warm, less salty, shallow current Figure 7.5: Connected deep and shallow ocean currents: A connected loop of shallow and deep ocean currents transports warm and cool water to various parts of the earth. This loop, which rises in some areas and falls in others, results when ocean water in the North Atlantic near Iceland is dense enough (because of its salt content and cold temperature) to sink to the ocean bottom, flow southward, and then move eastward to well up in the warmer Pacific. A shallower return current, aided by winds, then brings warmer, less salty, and thus less dense water to the Atlantic. This water then cools and sinks to begin this extremely slow cycle again. Question: How do you think this loop affects the climates of the coastal areas around it? Cold, salty, deep current Fig. 7-5, p. 150

The Earth Has Many Different Climates El Niño-Southern Oscillation Every few years Prevailing winds in tropical Pacific Ocean change direction Affects much of earth’s weather for 1-2 years Link between air circulation, ocean currents, and biomes

Normal and El Niño Conditions Figure 4, Supplement 7

Impact of El Nino-Southern Oscillation Figure 5, Supplement 7

Greenhouse Gases Warm the Lower Atmosphere CO2 CH4 N2O Natural greenhouse effect Gases keep earth habitable Human-enhanced global warming

Flow of Energy to and from the Earth Figure 3.4: High-quality solar energy flows from the sun to the earth. As it interacts with the earth’s air, water, soil, and life, it is degraded into lower-quality energy (heat) that flows back into space. Fig. 3-4, p. 57

Earth’s Surface Features Affect Local Climates Differential heat absorption by land and water Land and sea breezes Rain shadow effect Most precipitation falls on the windward side of mountain ranges Deserts leeward Cities create microclimates

Rain Shadow Effect Figure 7.6: The rain shadow effect is a reduction of rainfall and loss of moisture from the landscape on the side of mountains facing away from prevailing surface winds. Warm, moist air in onshore winds loses most of its moisture as rain and snow that fall on the windward slopes of a mountain range. This leads to semiarid and arid conditions on the leeward side of the mountain range and the land beyond. The Mojave Desert in the U.S. state of California and Asia’s Gobi Desert were both created by this effect. Fig. 7-6, p. 152

Prevailing winds pick up moisture from an ocean. On the windward side of a mountain range, air rises, cools, and releases moisture. On the leeward side of the mountain range, air descends, warms, and releases little moisture, causing rain shadow effect. Figure 7.6: The rain shadow effect is a reduction of rainfall and loss of moisture from the landscape on the side of mountains facing away from prevailing surface winds. Warm, moist air in onshore winds loses most of its moisture as rain and snow that fall on the windward slopes of a mountain range. This leads to semiarid and arid conditions on the leeward side of the mountain range and the land beyond. The Mojave Desert in the U.S. state of California and Asia’s Gobi Desert were both created by this effect. Fig. 7-6, p. 152

7-2 How Does Climate Affect the Nature and Locations of Biomes? Concept 7-2 Differences in average annual precipitation and temperature lead to the formation of tropical, temperate, and cold deserts, grasslands, and forests, and largely determine their locations.

Climate Helps Determine Where Organisms Can Live Major biomes: large land regions with certain types of climate and dominant plant life Not uniform Mosaic of patches Latitude and elevation Annual precipitation Temperature

The Earth’s Major Biomes Figure 7.7: Natural capital. The earth’s major biomes—each characterized by a certain combination of climate and dominant vegetation—result primarily from differences in climate (Core Case study). Each biome contains many ecosystems whose communities have adapted to differences in climate, soil, and other environmental factors. People have removed or altered much of the natural vegetation in some areas for farming, livestock grazing, obtaining timber and fuelwood, mining, and construction of towns and cities. (Figure 3, p. S33, in Supplement 8 shows the major biomes of North America.) See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: If you take away human influences such as farming and urban development, what kind of biome do you live in? Fig. 7-7, p. 153

North America Biomes Figure 3, Supplement 8

Generalized Effects of Elevation and Latitude on Climate and Biomes Figure 7.8: This diagram shows the generalized effects of elevation (left) and latitude (right) on climate and biomes (Core Case study). Parallel changes in vegetation type occur when we travel from the equator toward the north pole and from lowlands to mountaintops. Question: How might the components of the left diagram change as the earth warms during this century? Explain. Fig. 7-8, p. 153

Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Elevation Mountain ice and snow Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Coniferous Forest Latitude (south to north) Deciduous Forest Figure 7.8: This diagram shows the generalized effects of elevation (left) and latitude (right) on climate and biomes (Core Case study). Parallel changes in vegetation type occur when we travel from the equator toward the north pole and from lowlands to mountaintops. Question: How might the components of the left diagram change as the earth warms during this century? Explain. Tropical Forest Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Polar ice and snow Fig. 7-8, p. 153

Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Elevation Mountain ice and snow Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Coniferous Forest Deciduous Forest Tropical Forest Latitude Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Polar ice and snow Stepped Art Fig. 7-8, p. 153

Natural Capital: Average Precipitation and Average Temperature as Limiting Factors Figure 7.9: Natural capital. This diagram demonstrates that average precipitation and average temperature, acting together as limiting factors over a long time, help to determine the type of desert, grassland, or forest in a particular area, and thus the types of plants, animals, and decomposers found in that area (assuming it has not been disturbed by human activities). Fig. 7-9, p. 154

Evergreen coniferous forest Cold Arctic tundra Cold desert Evergreen coniferous forest Temperate desert Temperate deciduous forest Temperate grassland Chaparral Figure 7.9: Natural capital. This diagram demonstrates that average precipitation and average temperature, acting together as limiting factors over a long time, help to determine the type of desert, grassland, or forest in a particular area, and thus the types of plants, animals, and decomposers found in that area (assuming it has not been disturbed by human activities). Tropical desert Hot Wet Tropical rain forest Dry Tropical grassland (savanna) Fig. 7-9, p. 154

Global Plant Biodiversity Figure 6, Supplement 8

Arctic tundra (cold grassland) Tropic of Cancer Equator High mountains Polar ice Arctic tundra (cold grassland) Temperate grassland Tropic of Capricorn Figure 7.7: Natural capital. The earth’s major biomes—each characterized by a certain combination of climate and dominant vegetation—result primarily from differences in climate (Core Case study). Each biome contains many ecosystems whose communities have adapted to differences in climate, soil, and other environmental factors. People have removed or altered much of the natural vegetation in some areas for farming, livestock grazing, obtaining timber and fuelwood, mining, and construction of towns and cities. (Figure 3, p. S33, in Supplement 8 shows the major biomes of North America.) See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: If you take away human influences such as farming and urban development, what kind of biome do you live in? Tropical grassland (savanna) Chaparral Coniferous forest Temperate deciduous forest Temperate rain forest Tropical rain forest Tropical dry forest Desert Fig. 7-7, p. 153

There Are Three Major Types of Deserts Tropical deserts Temperate deserts Cold deserts Fragile ecosystem Slow plant growth Low species diversity Slow nutrient recycling Lack of water

Climate Graphs of Three Types of Deserts Figure 7.10: These climate graphs track the typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and cold deserts. Top photo: a tropical desert in the United Arab Emirates, in which a sport utility vehicle (SUV) participates in a popular but environmentally destructive SUV rodeo. Center photo: a temperate desert in southeastern California, with saguaro cactus, a prominent species in this ecosystem. Bottom photo: a cold desert, Mongolia’s Gobi Desert, where Bactrian camels live. Question: What month of the year has the highest temperature and the lowest rainfall for each of the three types of deserts? Fig. 7-10, p. 155

Stepped Art Fig. 7-10, p. 155

Temperate Desert Ecosystem in North America Figure 1, Supplement 6

Science Focus: Staying Alive in the Desert Beat the heat/every drop of water counts Plant adaptations Succulents Deep tap roots Animal strategies and adaptations Physiology and anatomy Behavior

Wildflowers Bloom after Rain in Arizona Figure 7.A: After a brief rain, these wildflowers bloomed in this temperate desert in Picacho Peak State Park in the U.S. state of Arizona. Fig. 7-A, p. 156

There Are Three Major Types of Grasslands (1) Tropical Temperate Cold (arctic tundra)

Climate Graphs of Tropical, Temperate, and Cold Grasslands Figure 7.11: These climate graphs track the typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and cold (arctic tundra) grasslands. Top photo: savanna (tropical grassland) in Maasai Mara National Park in Kenya, Africa, with wildebeests grazing. Center photo: prairie (temperate grassland) near East Glacier Park in the U.S. state of Montana, with wildflowers in bloom. Bottom photo: arctic tundra (cold grassland) in autumn in the U.S. state of Alaska (see also Figure 7-1, bottom). Question: What month of the year has the highest temperature and the lowest rainfall for each of the three types of grassland? Fig. 7-11, p. 157

Stepped Art Fig. 7-11, p. 157

There Are Three Major Types of Grasslands (2) Tropical Savanna Grazing animals Browsing animals Temperate Cold winters and hot and dry summers Tall-grass prairies Short-grass prairies Often converted to farmland

Temperate Tall-Grass Prairie Ecosystem in North America Figure 2, Supplement 6

There Are Three Major Types of Grasslands (3) Arctic tundra: fragile biome Plants close to ground to conserve heat Most growth in short summer Animals have thick fur Permafrost Underground soil that stays frozen Alpine tundra: above tree line in mountains

Monoculture Crop Replacing Biologically Diverse Temperate Grassland Figure 7.12: Natural capital degradation. This intensively cultivated cropland is an example of the replacement of a biologically diverse temperate grassland with a monoculture crop in the U.S. state of California. When humans remove the tangled root network of natural grasses, the fertile topsoil becomes subject to severe wind erosion unless it is covered with some type of vegetation. Fig. 7-12, p. 158

Temperate Shrubland: Nice Climate, Risky Place to Live Chaparral Near the sea: nice climate Prone to fires in the dry season

There Are Three Major Types of Forests (1) Tropical Temperate Cold Northern coniferous and boreal

Climate Graphs of Tropical, Temperate, and Cold Forests Figure 7.13: These climate graphs track the typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and cold (northern coniferous, or boreal) forests. Top photo: the closed canopy of a tropical rain forest in the western Congo Basin of Gabon, Africa. Middle photo: a temperate deciduous forest in the U.S. state of Rhode Island during the fall. (Photo 1 in the Detailed Contents shows this same area of forest during winter when its trees have lost their leaves.) Bottom photo: a northern coniferous forest in Canada’s Jasper National Park. Question: What month of the year has the highest temperature and the lowest rainfall for each of the three types of forest? Fig. 7-13, p. 160

Stepped Art Fig. 7-13, p. 160

There Are Three Major Types of Forests (2) Tropical rain forests Temperature and moisture Stratification of specialized plant and animal niches Little wind: significance Rapid recycling of scarce soil nutrients Impact of human activities

Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem Figure 7.14: This diagram shows some of the components and interactions in a tropical rain forest ecosystem. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals that plants use. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between producers; primary consumers (herbivores); secondary, or higher-level, consumers (carnivores); and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Fig. 7-14, p. 161

Climbing monstera palm Blue and gold macaw Ocelot Harpy eagle Squirrel monkeys Climbing monstera palm Slaty-tailed trogon Katydid Green tree snake Tree frog Snail Figure 7.14: This diagram shows some of the components and interactions in a tropical rain forest ecosystem. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals that plants use. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between producers; primary consumers (herbivores); secondary, or higher-level, consumers (carnivores); and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Ants Bromeliad Bacteria Fungi Producer to primary consumer Primary to secondary consumer Secondary to higher-level consumer All producers and consumers to decomposers Fig. 7-14, p. 161

Niche Stratification in a Tropical Rain Forest Figure 7.15: This diagram illustrates the stratification of specialized plant and animal niches in a tropical rain forest. Filling such specialized niches enables species to avoid or minimize competition for resources and results in the coexistence of a great variety of species. Fig. 7-15, p. 162

Black-crowned antpitta 45 Emergent layer Harpy eagle 40 35 Toco toucan Canopy 30 25 Height (meters) 20 Understory Wooly opossum 15 Figure 7.15: This diagram illustrates the stratification of specialized plant and animal niches in a tropical rain forest. Filling such specialized niches enables species to avoid or minimize competition for resources and results in the coexistence of a great variety of species. 10 Brazilian tapir Shrub layer 5 Black-crowned antpitta Ground layer Fig. 7-15, p. 162

There Are Three Major Types of Forests (3) Temperate deciduous forests Temperature and moisture Broad-leaf trees Slow rate of decomposition: significance Impact of human activities

Temperate Deciduous Forest Ecosystem in North America Figure 4, Supplement 6

There Are Three Major Types of Forests (4) Evergreen coniferous forests: boreal and taigas Temperature and moisture Few species of cone: bearing trees Slow decomposition: significance Coastal coniferous forest Temperate rain forests

Evergreen Coniferous Forest Ecosystem in North America Figure 5, Supplement 6

Temperate Rain Forest in Washington State Figure 7.16: Temperate rain forest in Olympic National Park in the U.S. state of Washington. Fig. 7-16, p. 163

Mountains Play Important Ecological Roles Majority of the world’s forests Islands of biodiversity Habitats for endemic species Help regulate the earth’s climate Major storehouses of water Role in hydrologic cycle

Mount Rainier National Park in Washington State Figure 7.17: Mountains such as this one in the U.S. state of Washington play important ecological roles. Fig. 7-17, p. 163

7-3 How Have We Affected the Word’s Terrestrial Ecosystems? Concept 7-3 In many areas, human activities are impairing ecological and economic services provided by the earth’s deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains.

Humans Have Disturbed Most of the Earth’s Lands Deserts Grasslands Forests Mountains

Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems Figure 7.18: This diagram illustrates the major human impacts on the world's deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains (Concept 7-3). Question: For each of these biomes, which two of the impacts listed do you think are the most harmful? Fig. 7-18, p. 165

Natural Capital Degradation Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems Deserts Grasslands Forests Mountains Large desert cities Conversion to cropland Clearing for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber, and urban development Agriculture Destruction of soil and underground habitat by off-road vehicles Timber and mineral extraction Release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning grassland Figure 7.18: This diagram illustrates the major human impacts on the world's deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains (Concept 7-3). Question: For each of these biomes, which two of the impacts listed do you think are the most harmful? Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs Conversion of diverse forests to tree plantations Soil salinization from irrigation Increasing tourism Overgrazing by livestock Air pollution blowing in from urban areas and power plants Depletion of groundwater Damage from off-road vehicles Oil production and off-road vehicles in arctic tundra Soil damage from off-road vehicles Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction Pollution of forest streams Water supplies threatened by glacial melting Fig. 7-18, p. 165

NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems Deserts Soil salinization from irrigation Depletion of groundwater Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction Grasslands Conversion to cropland Release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning grassland Overgrazing by livestock Oil production and off-road vehicles in arctic tundra Forests Clearing for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber, and urban development Conversion of diverse forests to tree plantations Damage from off-road vehicles Pollution of forest streams Mountains Agriculture Timber extraction Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs Mineral extraction Increasing tourism Urban air pollution Increased ultraviolet radiation from ozone depletion Soil damage from off-road vehicles Large desert cities Soil destruction by off-road vehicles Stepped Art Fig. 7-18, p. 165

Three Big Ideas Differences in climate, based mostly on long-term differences in average temperature and precipitation, largely determine the types and locations of the earth’s deserts, grasslands, and forests. The earth’s terrestrial systems provide important ecological and economic services.

Three Big Ideas Human activities are degrading and disrupting many of the ecological and economic services provided by the earth’s terrestrial ecosystems.