《语言学概论》教学课件

胡壮麟教授

Chapter 1. Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language 1.4 Origin of language 1.5 Functions of language 1.6 What is linguistics 1.7 Main branches of linguistics 1.8 Macro linguistics 1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics

1.1 Why study language? A tool for communication An integral part of our life and humanity If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity

1.2 What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System: Elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned (×); bkli (×). Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. Vocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Communication-----A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). Human ----language is human-specific. Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. “Language Acquisition Device” (LAD)

1.3 Design features of language Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement Charles Hockett (1958) American linguist

arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. e.g. “house” uchi (Japanese) mansion (French) 房子(Chinese)

Significance of Arbitrariness The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.

Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f” ) duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning. the higher level ----words which are meaningful the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f” ) This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning. The principle of economy

Hierarchy of Language: Expression of Duality Astronomical number of sentences 语言的双重性表现在两个方面： 1. 用自身无意义的 语音构成 有意义的语言单位 2. 用小单位构成大单位 Thousands of words Hundreds of morphemes Scores of sounds

Significance of Duality Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. （胡壮麟 2001：7-8） In other words, language is productive because of its own duality.

Creativity----language is resourceful Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (novel utterances are continually being created.) non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility. e.g. an experiment of bee communication:

Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.

1.4 Origin of language How did language come into being?

(1)The Divine- Origin Theory Adam’s naming 耶 和 华 神 用 土 所 造 成 的 野 地 各 样 走 兽 和 空 中 各 样 飞 鸟 都 带 到 那 人 面 前 ， 看 他 叫 什 么 。 那 人 怎 样 叫 各 样 的 活 物 ， 那 就 是 它 的 名 字 。 And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof.

Adam’s naming 那 人 便 给 一 切 牲 畜 和 空 中 飞 鸟 ， 野 地 走 兽 都 起 了 名 。 只 是 那 人 没 有 遇 见 配 偶 帮 助 他 。 And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him.

仓颉造字 上古仓颉造字时,飞沙走石,“天雨粟、鬼夜哭”, 仓颉陵遗址 仓颉、史皇氏，今濮阳市南乐县吴村人，相传是黄帝时期造字的史官，仰观天象、俯察鸟兽虫鱼之迹，总结远古各部落的刻划符号首创文字，从而结束了远古先民结绳纪事的历史，后人尊之为'造字圣人'。仓颉陵遗址上建有仓颉陵墓和仓颉庙，还有藏甲楼、故宅井及部分石刻、碑刻。目前主要修复的建筑有万古一人殿、仰圣门、碑亭、朝天门、六书殿、字圣坊、造书台、碑林。 上古仓颉造字时,飞沙走石,“天雨粟、鬼夜哭”,

(2)The Invention Theory The Bow-wow theory （咆哮说/拟声说） The Pooh-pooh theory （啵啵说/感叹说）

The “Yo-he-ho” theory （吆嘿嗬说/喘 息说） The Ding-dong theory （丁咚说/声象说） The “Yo-he-ho” theory （吆嘿嗬说/喘 息说）

(3)The Evolutionary Theory There is certain relationship between the development of language and the evolutionary development of the human species. 1. Children are born with both thought and language. 2. The development of the physical apparatus for speech. 3. It is labor that created the necessity for language.

1.5 Functions of language Informative Interpersonal function Performative Emotive function Phatic communion Recreational function Metalingual function

Elements of Communication: Jakobson’s Model (1960) Context Referential Addresser Message Addressee Emotive Poetic Conative Contact Phatic Code Metalingual

Metafunctions of Language: Halliday’s Model 1. Ideational: Constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations ( through transitive system) (Linguistic Constructionism) 2. Interpersonal: enacts social relationships (through mood and modality) 3. Contextual: creates relevance to context (through coherence and cohesion) Systemic Functional Linguistics

M. A. K. Halliday（韩礼德） (1925-), founder of systemic functional linguistics,1947-1949 studied at Beijing University, 1949-1950 studied at Ling Nan University, 1955 got doctor’s degree at Cambridge University with The Language of the Chinese “Secret History of the Mongols”

Summary of the Functions of anguage Informative （信息功能）: Language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. By use of Declarative Sentences 2. Interrogative（询问功能）: When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function Through Questions that expect answers.

3. Interpersonal（人际功能）: Language serves an interpersonal function when it is used to establish and maintain their status in a society.Five sub-categories of interpersonal function: Performative（行事功能）: the use of language to “do things”, to perform actions. Through quite formal and even ritualized language. Directive（指令功能）: When language is used to get the hearer do something, it serves a directive function. Most Imperative sentences. Expressive（表达功能）: the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Through Exclamations, etc. Emotive（感情功能）: the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Through Jokes, Advertising, Propaganda, etc. Phatic（寒暄功能）: the use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. E.g. Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc.

the sheer joy of using it. e.g. baby’s babbling, poetry, etc. 4. Recreational（娱乐功能）: the use of language for the sheer joy of using it. e.g. baby’s babbling, poetry, etc. 5. Metalingual（元语言功能）: the use of language to talk about language itself. This makes language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.6 What is linguistics 1.1.1 Definition Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. Linguistic data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.

1.7 Main branches of linguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics

1.8 Macro linguistics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Anthropological linguistics Computational linguistics

1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive vs. prescriptive Synchronic vs. diachronic Langue & parole Competence & performance

Descriptive vs. prescriptive They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

Synchronic vs. diachronic The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study。 The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

Langue & parole The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), Swiss, founder of structuralism, modern linguistics, semiology. Course in General Linguistics, 1916

Competence & performance The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

Avram Noam Chomsky (1928-), founder of TG(Pp. 42), a revolution to structuralism. LAD- (Pp.145)-PPH-Universal Grammar ST-EST-REST

Traditional linguistics & modern linguistics Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. de Saussure’ s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as “father of modern linguistics”. The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” They differ in several basic ways. Differences between the two.

Firstly, modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”. Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind