The Mathematics of Information Technology – The Road Ahead V. Kumar Murty Department of Mathematics University of Toronto
A Mathematical Universe The universe seems to exhibit mathematical properties. Pythagoras and the music of the spheres. Aryabhatta and his algorithm inspired by astronomy.
Descartes’ vision On November 10, 1619 when Descartes was 23, he had a vision in which it was “revealed” to him that the universe is mathematical and logical. Since Descartes, science was gripped with the idea of a universe that can be described mathematically.
Descartes The universe that Descartes referred to is the ‘physical universe’ from which mind and thought are completely separated. This is the dualism of mind and matter. Descartes’ vision itself is neither mathematical nor logical and so according to him stands outside the universe. Paradoxically, one of his main contributions was in taking mathematics from the physical to the level of ideas: he is known for his contribution of algebraizing geometry. A straight line is identified with the equation that describes it, and so on. Abstraction is a common ingredient in all attempts to mathematically describe a phenomenon.
A mathematical universe In what sense is the universe mathematical? Physical laws can be formulated unambiguously. Mathematics gives a language for unambiguously representing, organizing and manipulating information. We rely on it because it has a predictive power.
A mathematical universe Why is the universe mathematical? No one knows. Eugene Wigner called it “the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics”. But it does have limitations.
Mathematics as a language Mathematics is a language which seems to be well suited for describing the physical universe. Defining characteristic is precision. It shares some similarities with music.
The Uncertainty Principle of Language Breadth vs. precision Mathematics is not suitable for expressing certain ideas (for example, feelings) It can capture quantifiable phenomena
Mathematics and Science The success of mathematics in the physical sciences had a profound impact on many other branches of enquiry. For a long time, no field of enquiry was considered scientific unless it could be expressed mathematically We therefore see many new disciplines emerge as an attempt to use mathematical methods in novel fields.
Hobbes and Geometry Thomas Hobbes ( ) accidentally came across a copy of Euclid’s elements when he was 40. He read the statement of “Proposition 47” (the theorem of Pythagoras) and exclaimed aloud “this is impossible!”
Hobbes and Geometry However, he read the demonstration in which he was led to earlier propositions and their proofs until he was convinced. He fell in love with geometry and the axiomatic method. So impressed was he with the idea that a statement which was not obvious could be proved by systematic and logical reasoning that he wondered whether all thought could be formulated axiomatically.
An axiomatic approach to society He tried to apply this to the organization of society. He conceived of it as an artificial being (Leviathan) composed of parts (individuals). He attempted to make government and social institutions an object of rational analysis and politics a science.
Hobbes Perhaps he would have done a better job if he had had a deeper understanding of mathematics. Hobbes spent considerable effort in trying to square the circle and double the cube. He also entered into a controversial “debate” with Wallis which began with mathematics and spread to theological and personal questions. Hobbes wrote “Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis, Professor of Geometry and Doctor of Divinity”
Montesquieu and Social Laws His firm belief that everything was governed by laws was greatly influenced by Descartes. Montesquieu tried to understand social facts as objects of science subject to laws. These laws are not created but “God-given”, in other words, axioms.
Montesquieu and Sociology He formulated the concept of “social types” and studied them by comparing different societies. In some sense, this was the beginning of the field of sociology.
Montesquieu and government He formulated the concept of a three-body government (executive, parliament and judiciary) and a “separation of powers” between the bodies. Though he seemed to prefer a democratic government, he did not feel that all were equal. He advocated slavery and had doubts about the abilities of women.
Mathematics and Ethics Baruch Spinoza tried to establish an ethical system through a deductive method modeled on Euclidean geometry. “Ethics demonstrated in geometric order” Anything that cannot be captured mathematically is illusion.
The Tool of Abstraction Each of Hobbes, Montesquieu and Spinoza attempted to formulate abstract concepts that modelled the reality they were trying to describe. The abstract concepts could then be subjected to analysis which they felt had mathematical precision.
Mathematics and information technology The representation of information The manipulation of information to accomplish a predetermined function The protection of information Mathematics can be used in all of these aspects
Google and Linear Algebra Google set itself apart from other search engines by its ability to quantify “relevance”.
Google and Linear Algebra Suppose we have a connected directed graph of n nodes. We want to attach a “relevance factor” to each node and use it to order the nodes. We might say that the relevance of a node is increased by the number of other nodes that link to it. We might weight nodes by the number of outgoing links.
Google and Linear Algebra Suppose node k is given non-negative weight x k which we are trying to define. Consider the matrix A = (a ij ) where a ij = 1/n j if node j connects to node i and n j is the number of outgoing edges from node j. Then we have to solve the matrix equation Ax = x where x is the column vector (x 1, … x n ) T. The columns of the matrix add to one, so it will always have 1 as an eigenvalue.
Google and Linear Algebra The graph on the right gives the matrix /2 1/3000 1/31/201/2 1/31/200
Google and Linear Algebra This matrix has a unique eigenvector for the eigenvalue 1, namely (12,4,9,6) T. This gives node 1 the highest ranking. Need to modify this if the graph is not connected or if the eigenspace is of dimension >
CDs and Polynomials over finite fields Compact discs and many storage mechanisms (DVD, Raid, etc) encode information using polynomials over finite fields. Let F be a finite field, say of cardinality q. Order the nonzero elements as x 1,…,x q-1. The code words are the (q-1)-tuples {(f(x 1 ),…f(x q-1 )): f a polynomial over F of degree < k}
CDs and Polynomials over finite fields A given text of k-1 elements of F to be encoded are viewed as the values of a polynomial f of degree < k with coefficients in F. The k-1 symbols are encoded as (f(x 1 ), …, f(x q-1 )). In practice, commonly used values are n=255 = , and k=223 and it can correct (n-k)/2 = 16 errors.
CDs and Polynomials over finite fields Reed-Solomon codes were invented in 1960 but were applied to CDs in They have been generalized in many ways, including algebraic geometry codes in which the polynomials are replaced by functions on a curve over F.
Roomba and computational geometry Robotic vacuum cleaner. Navigation is through computational geometry. Examples of problems that need to be solved: given n points, find the pair that has the shortest distance.
Information Security Establishing a shared secret through an insecure medium. Security is measured through the computational difficulty of solving certain mathematical problems. Examples are factoring integers, computing a discrete logarithm in a finite cyclic group, finding the shortest nonzero vector in a lattice, etc.
Mathematics and Life Sciences: the new frontier Relationship between mathematics and life sciences in the 21 st century may be similar to that between mathematics and physics in the 20 th century. Is there a biological counterpart to physical force? Functional and non-local interactions. Need for a language to express concepts such as “self-organization” and “emergent properties”.
Information in Living Organisms Information technology of the past has been the reading and manipulation of information in the physical universe. Information technology of the present is largely the representation and manipulation of information that we generate. The information technology yet to come is in the reading and manipulating of information in living systems. Organisms differ from inanimate matter in that they possess coded information.
Mathematics in the Life Sciences Mathematical neuroscience tries to model neuronal activity. Main problem of neuroscience: how does the nervous system process information? Population genetics: how genetic mutations and selection are propagated in a population. Epidemiology: dynamics of diseases.
Systems Biology Information is not only in the nucleus of the cell, but in the entire cell. A view of the cell as a system consisting of functional components. The aim is to predict and control the behaviour of the system.
Synthetic Biology Natural successor is “synthetic biology” in which the system is “engineered”.
Intelligence and Consciousness A more difficult array of questions are centered on intelligence: what is it? Problems of cognition: how do we find meaning? What is meaning? What is consciousness?
Mathematics and the Human Brain Von Neumann compared the human brain to a digital computer and found that the superior power of the brain comes from massive parallelism.
The Nature of Mathematical Calculation In numerical calculations that involve approximations or “errors”, repeated calculations can compound the “errors” to the point of rendering the calculation meaningless. “Arithmetical” or “logical” depth refers to the number of serial arithmetic operations that have to be performed in a calculation.
The Language of Life Biological calculation seems to be more “horizontal”. This “horizontal” nature of biological calculation eliminates the problem of compounding errors. The language of the nervous system seems to have less “arithmetical depth” than we are used to in mathematics.
The Language of Life The nervous system seems to use a radically different method of notation which is stochastic: not the positional system. Meaning is conveyed by statistical properties of the message. Meaning is also conveyed by statistical properties of different messages transmitted simultaneously.
Implications for mathematics The mathematics we know may in fact be a “secondary” language “derived” from the “primary” language of the nervous system.
Mathematics and the human brain DARPA recently asked for proposals to build a mathematical model of the human brain. That effort will radically alter the way we construct digital computers. It may also radically alter our views of intelligence and consciousness and our humanity.