© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-1 Chapter 3 Perspectives on Effective Leadership Behavior

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-2 Ohio State Leadership Studies Leadership Behaviors Consideration – leader’s concern for people and interpersonal relationships Initiating structure – leader’s concern for accomplishing the task

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-3 Ohio State Leadership Studies Research Results Relation between consideration and turnover rate

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-4 Ohio State Leadership Studies Research Results Relation between initiating structure and turnover rate

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-5 Michigan Leadership Studies Leadership Behaviors Task-oriented behaviors Relations-oriented behaviors Participative leadership Peer Leadership

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-6 Limitations of Survey Research Bias in Behavior Description Questionnaires Ambiguous items Response bias Aggregation of items

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-7 Experiments Laboratory Experiments Low external validity (generalizability) High internal validity Inconsistent findings Field Experiments Difficult to conduct High external validity Low internal validity Positive results for relations-oriented behaviors; mixed and inconsistent results for task-oriented behaviors

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-8 The “High-High” Leader The Managerial Grid & PM Leadership Theory Additive versus Multiplicative Model Limited Support for a Universal Model Need to incorporate situational variables

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-9 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid Concern for Production Concern for People (1,1) Impoverished Middle-of-the-Road (5,5) Authority-Compliance (9,1) Team Management (9,9)(1,9) Country Club

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-10 Leadership Behavior Taxonomies Sources of Diversity Among Taxonomies No absolute set of correct behaviors Levels of abstraction Various methods used to develop taxonomies Limitations of Factor-Based Taxonomies

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-11 Leadership Behavior Taxonomies Three-Dimensional Taxonomy Task-Oriented Behaviors Relations-Oriented Behaviors Change-Oriented Behaviors

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-12 Task-Oriented Behaviors Organize work activities to improve efficiency Plan short-term operation Assign work to groups or individuals Clarify what results are expected for a task Set specific goals and standards for task performance

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-13 Task-Oriented Behaviors Explain rules, policies, and stand operating procedures Direct and coordinate work activities Monitor operations and performance Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt the work

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-14 Relations-Oriented Behaviors Provide support and encouragement to someone with a difficult task Express confidence that a person or group can perform a difficult task Socialize with people to build relationships. Recognize contributions and accomplishments Provide coaching and mentoring when appropriate

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-15 Relations-Oriented Behaviors Consult with people on decisions affecting them Allow people to determine the best way to do a task Keep people informed about actions affecting them Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to build team identity Recruit competent new members for the team or organization

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-16 Change-Oriented Behaviors Monitor the external environment to detect threats and opportunities Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for improvements Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a different way Develop innovative new strategies linked to core competencies

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-17 Change-Oriented Behaviors Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship in the organization Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team or organization Experiment with new approaches for achieving objectives Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new vision or strategy Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major change Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change Influence outsiders to support change and negotiate agreements with them

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-18 Specific Task Behaviors Action Planning 1. Identify necessary action steps 2. Identify the optimal sequence of action steps 3. Estimate the time needed to carry out each action step 4. Determine starting times and deadlines for each action step 5. Estimate the cost of each action step 6. Determine who will be accountable for each action step 7. Develop procedures for monitoring progress

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-19 Specific Task Behaviors (cont.) Clarifying Roles and Objectives Defining Job Responsibilities Explain the important job responsibilities Clarify the person’s scope of authority Explain how the job relates to the mission of the unit Explain important policies, rules, and requirements Assigning Work Clearly explain the assignment Explain the reasons for an assignment Clarify priorities and deadlines Check for comprehension Setting Performance Goals Set goals for relevant aspects of performance Set goals that are clear and specific Set goals that are challenging but realistic Set a target date for attainment of each goal

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-20 Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Supporting Identify and measure key performance indicators Monitor key process variables as well as outcomes Measure progress against plans and budgets Develop independent sources of information about performance Observe operations directly when it is feasible Ask specific questions about the work Encourage reporting of problems and mistakes Conduct periodic progress review meetings

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-21 Help the person analyze his or her performance by asking questions or suggesting aspects to examine more closely Provide constructive feedback about effective and ineffective behaviors exhibited by the person Suggest specific things that could help to improve the person’s performance Demonstrate a better way to do a complex task or procedure Express confidence the person can learn a difficult task or procedure Provide opportunities to practice difficult procedures before they are used in the work Help the person learn how to solve a problem rather than just providing the answer Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Coaching

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-22 Help the person identify relevant strengths and weaknesses Help the person find ways to acquire necessary skills and knowledge. Encourage attendance at relevant training courses Provide opportunities to learn from experience Provide helpful career advice Promote the person’s reputation Serve as a role model (demonstrate appropriate behavior) Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Mentoring

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-23 Recognize a variety of contributions and achievements Actively search for contributions to recognize Recognize specific contributions and achievements Recognize improvements in performance Recognize commendable efforts that failed Provide recognition that is sincere Provide recognition that is timely Use a form of recognition appropriate for the person and situation Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Recognizing

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-24 Chapter 4 Participative Leadership, Delegation, and Empowerment

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-25 Varieties of Participation Autocratic Decision Consultation Joint Decision Delegation

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-26 Consequences of Participative Leadership Potential Benefits of Participation Decision quality Decision acceptance Satisfaction with the decision process Development of participant skills Objectives of Different Participants

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-27 Research on Effects of Participative Leadership Example of Research on Participation – Bragg & Andrews (1973) Effects of Participation Limitations of Participation Research Measurement problems with survey field research Combining interventions Short-term programs Difficulty comparing results across studies

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-28 Normative Decision Model Vroom and Yetton Model

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-29 Guidelines for Participative Leadership Encourage Participation Encourage people to express their concerns Describe a proposal as tentative Record ideas and suggestions Look for ways to build on ideas and suggestions Be tactful in expressing concerns about a suggestion Listen to dissenting views without getting defensive Try to utilize suggestions and deal with concerns Show appreciation for suggestions

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-30 Delegation Varieties of Delegation Potential Advantages of Delegation Improvement in decision quality Greater subordinate commitment Making subordinates’ jobs more interesting, challenging, and meaningful Improved time management Important form of management development

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-31 Potential Advantages of Delegation

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-32 Delegation Reasons for Lack of Delegation Aspects of the leader’s personality Fear of subordinate making a mistake High need for personal achievement Characteristics of the subordinate Nature of the work

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-33 Reasons for Lack of Delegation

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-34 Guidelines for Delegating What to Delegate Tasks that can be done better by a subordinate Tasks that are urgent but not high priority Tasks relevant to a subordinate’s career Tasks of appropriate difficulty Both pleasant and unpleasant tasks Tasks not central to the manager’s role

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-35 Guidelines for Delegation How to Delegate Specify responsibilities clearly Provide adequate authority and specify limits of discretion Specify reporting requirements Ensure subordinate acceptance of responsibilities

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-36 Delegation How to Manage Delegation Inform others who need to know Monitor progress in appropriate ways Arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary information Provide support and assistance, but avoid reverse delegation Make mistakes a learning experience

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-37 Perceived Empowerment Nature of Psychological Empowerment Consequences of Empowerment Benefits Consequences Facilitating Conditions for Empowerment Job design Organizational structure Organizational culture Leader selection and assessment Procedures for influencing decisions Shared leadership

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-38 Conditions Facilitating Psychological Empowerment

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-39 Guidelines for Empowerment Clarify objectives and explain how the work supports them Involve people in making decisions that affect them Delegate responsibility and authority for important activities Take into account individual differences in motivation and skills Provide access to relevant information Provide resources needed to carry out new responsibilities Change management systems to be consistent with empowerment

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-40 Guidelines for Empowerment Remove bureaucratic constraints and unnecessary controls Express confidence and trust in people Provide coaching and advice when requested Encourage and support initiative and problem solving Recognize important contributions and achievements Ensure that rewards are commensurate with new responsibilities Ensure accountability for the ethical use of power

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-41 Chapter 5 Dyadic Role Making, Attributions, and Followership

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-42 Leader-Member Exchange Theory Initial Version of LMX Theory Role-Making Stages Measurement of LMX

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-43 Leader Attribution About Subordinates Two-Stage Attribution Model 1. The manager tries to determine the cause of the poor performance 2. The manager tries to select an appropriate response to correct the problem Types of Attributions Internal Effort Ability External

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-44 Reasons for an External Attribution 1. The subordinate has on prior history of poor performance on similar tasks 2. The subordinate performs other tasks effectively 3. The subordinate is doing as well as other people who are in a similar situation 4. The effects of failures or mistakes are not serious or harmful 5. The manager is dependent on the subordinate for his or her own success 6. The subordinate is perceived to have other redeeming qualities 7. The subordinate has offered excuses or an apology 8. Evidence indicates external causes 9. Managers with prior experience doing the same kind of work as the subordinate

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-45 Correcting Performance Deficiencies Gather information about the performance problem Try to avoid attributional biases Provide corrective feedback promptly Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior Stay calm and professional

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-46 Correcting Performance Deficiencies Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance Ask the person to suggest remedies Express confidence in the person Express a sincere desire to help the person Reach agreement on specific action steps Summarize the discussion and verify agreement

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-47 Follower Attribution and Implicit Theories Determinants of Follower Attributions Timely indicators of performance Direct versus indirect actions Response in a crisis External conditions Constraints on leader’s decisions and actions Leader’s intentions and competency Leader’s personal qualities Implicit Leadership Theories

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-48 Impression Management Impression Management Tactics Exemplification Ingratiation Self-Promotion Intimidation Impression Management by Followers Impression Management by Leaders

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-49 Follower Contribution to Effective Leadership The Courageous Follower Need to implement decisions made by a leader and challenge misguided or unethical decisions Willing to risk leader’s displeasure Take time and effort to help a leader grow and succeed Strong commitment to the organization and its mission

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-50 Self-Management Strategies Behavioral Strategies Self-reward Self-punishment Self-monitoring Self-goal setting Self-rehearsal Cue modification Cognitive Strategies Positive self-talk Mental rehearsal How Leaders Encourage Self-Management

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-51 Guidelines for Followers Find out what you are expected to do Take the initiative to deal with problems Keep the boss informed about your decisions Verify the accuracy of information you give the boss Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback to you

© 2006 Prentice Hall Leadership in Organizations3-52 Guidelines for Followers Support leader efforts to make necessary changes Show appreciation and provide recognition when appropriate Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by leaders Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the boss Provide upward coaching and counseling when appropriate