Presenting information

Appropriate Information & Feedback Reports, tables & graphs Information Cycle Stages Tools Outputs What do we collect? Timely Quality data data sources & tools How do we process it? How do we use it? Reliable Information Data quality checks, Data analysis The Inf Cycle enables one to see the links between the different stages of information. What are these stages or phases? As you can see through this diagram, phases of information handling include the process of data capturing, through observation of real events (collecting), processing data (process means ensuring data quality by auditing data (3Cs), collating (aggregating) data… so that one can analyse it and turn it into information. The information is then presented, interpreted and used for decision-making. Appropriate Information & Feedback Information How do we present it? Reports, tables & graphs

Preparing for Presentation essential prerequisites Correct Complete submission by all (most) reporting facilities Consistent data within normal ranges clear definitions / standards Timely Review – reinforce importance of data that complies with 3 C’s

Presenting Information Tabular: frequency distribution table Graphs: Histogram, Line diagrams, Scatter plot, Bar chart, Pie chart, population pyramids Numerical:  Measures of Typicality or Center: mode, median, mean  Measures of Variability (or Spread): range, variance, standard deviation  Measures of Shape: skewness, kurtosis Proportions, rates, ratios Maps: geographical representation (GIS)

Qualitative (Characteristics) Types of data Data Quantitative (Numbers) Qualitative (Characteristics) Discrete Continuous Discrete categories/ kinds counts measures

Numerical Data Continuous – they are measurable Examples: Age of patients in years or months Weight of newborn in grams Discrete – they are counted (possible values are distinct or separate) The size of a family expressed as the number of children The number of days since the begining of a disease units of measurement

Non-numerical Data qualitative description of categories of a characteristic Examples: The gender of a patient is recorded as “male” or “female”; The list of diagnoses in a health center

Mark with  in the blank spaces Data Quantitative Qualitative   Discrete Continuous Number of beds per HC Bed ocupation Addresses of patients Number of children Patient temperature in ºC Cost of a drug presciption Population of a village Age of patients in years Number of broken vials  

Tables Number of children per family in Maputo, 2005 Source: Statistics & Planning Directorate, 2005

Tables easy to produce – difficult to use Ideally should contain: Beware information overload: easy to produce – difficult to use Ideally should contain: Few rows Few categories/columns Useful for: assess quality trends over time make comparisons identify outliers, gaps Explore the advantages & disadvantages of using tables

GRAPHS (a visual representation of data) Advantages: Information is instantly conveyed Data are presented clearly and simply Can expose relationships and patterns Detect trends over time Can be used to emphasise information

Graph Elements Title – descriptive clinic name, what is graphed and the time period Y axis – must ALWAYS be labeled Y axis label X axis – label if appropriate Key or legend – used if more than one element graphed Y X Review all graph elements – labels, axis etc. Emphasize the importance of the Y-axis Source: Notes: Scale – be appropriate

Five rules for graphs Never put too much information in the graph. KEEP IT SIMPLE. Be careful about mixing different activities: stick to one group of people or diseases or services. Label your graph: always have a clear heading, easily read labels on the axes, and a legend which explains each of the lines or bars. Select scales that fit the entire graph on both axes. Where possible, draw a target line or reference point to show where you are aiming at.

Type of graphs Continuous data Discrete Data histograms line Graphs scatter Graphs Discrete Data bar graphs pie charts

Line graph Graph 2: PHC headcount under 5 years old, Manyara Clinic, 2001 Explore line graphs - selection & use Explore the advantages & disadvantages accurate, can show minute changes in the relationships between 2 major variables displays trends over time can be useful if more than one data item is used

Bar graph versus Line graph which one is best?

Line graph, with two dependent variables

Line graph, for cumulative coverage Explore cumulative coverage graphs - selection & use Explore the advantages & disadvantages

Line graph, for cumulative coverage Simple and effective monitoring tool Used when targets are set for a year i.e. immunization, antenatal coverage, etc. Each month, data is graphed individually and also added to the previous month A target is set, a target line is drawn and progress is monitored with respect to the target line Explore cumulative coverage graphs - selection & use Explore the advantages & disadvantages

Graphs for sets of discrete data pie charts bar graphs

Pie chart Explore pie graphs - selection & use Explore the advantages & disadvantages best type of graph for showing the relative proportions of different categories to each other and to the whole can be used when exact quantities are less important than the relative sizes of the parts Works best with large discrepancies Only for data that adds up to a total (100%)

Bar graph, simple ** Slides 4 – 8 explore the differences between the various graph types & the rationale for selection & use of each type as well as advantages & disadvantages of each type Explore bar graphs - selection & use Explore the advantages & disadvantages displays data over time or can compare 2 or more different facilities / districts / regions / years

Bar graph, stacked ** Slides 4 – 8 explore the differences between the various graph types & the rationale for selection & use of each type as well as advantages & disadvantages of each type Explore bar graphs - selection & use Explore the advantages & disadvantages it displays the quantities, but it also shows the relative proportions of the categories to each other and to the whole BUT hard to estimate the value of the variables at the top

Common faults with graphs No title No labels for the variables No units of measurement (or incorrect units!) No scale markings (or just too many!) Inappropriate scale choice – data points should be evenly represented Incorrect choice of independent (x-axis) and dependent (y-axis) variables No legends when needed Too high ink-to-data ratio (e.g. 3D graphs) Don’t trust the computer!

Graphs- population pyramids Explore population pyramid graphs - selection & use Explore the advantages & disadvantages they highlight the differences in age distribution between males and females as well as proportional age categories

BAD GRAPHS YOU SHOULD NOT BUILD!

Where do the lines cross?

…gone fishing…

and finally, some inspiration… GapMinder