Wechsler Scales and Revisions W-B 1939 WAIS 1955 WAIS–R 1981 WAIS–III 1997 W-B II 1946 WISC 1949 WISC–R 1974 WISC–III 1991 WPPSI 1967 WPPSI–R 1989 WPPSI–III 2002 WISC-IV 2003

WISC–IV The KIT Administration Manual Technical Manual Stimulus Book (9" X 6") Blocks Symbol Search/Coding Booklet Cancellation Booklet Record Form

Where Could We Be Going? Elimination of the Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Emphasizing Cognitive Processing Information provided by the IQ Test Replacement of the traditional “Wait to Fail” model Increase in focus on Pre-referral Assessment and Intervention Changing of the definition of Learning Disability

Revision Goals Update & Strengthen Theoretical Foundations Enhance Clinical Utility Improve Psychometric Properties Increase and Enhancing User-Friendliness Maintain Continuity and Familiarity

Update & Strengthen Theoretical Foundations Current Status of Intelligence Theory Use of Factor Index Scores Emphasizes multiple factors in cognitive abilities De-emphasizes reliance on VIQ and PIQ to characterize a child’s overall cognitive abilities Consistent with WPPSI-III and WAIS-III Enhanced Measures of Fluid Reasoning Tasks that involve “manipulating abstractions, rules, generalizations, and logical relationships” require fluid intelligence (Carroll, 1993, p. 583). MR, PCO, and WR developed to enhance the measures of fluid intelligence

Update & Strengthen Theoretical Foundations Enhanced Measures of Working Memory Emphasizes the importance of working memory in learning Focuses on more “active” types of working memory Enhanced Measures of Processing Speed Targets role as “mediator” in cognitive functioning and learning Recognizes impact as predictor of reading comprehension

Enhanced Clinical Utility Increasing Number of Special Group Validity Studies Updating Statistical Linkage to Other Cognitive Measures and Measures of Achievement

Enhancing Clinical Utility Increased and Enhanced Clinical Validity Studies Mental Retardation – Mild Mental Retardation – Moderate Learning Disorder – Reading Learning Disorder – Reading, Writing Learning Disorder – Reading, Writing, and Math Learning Disorder – Math Receptive Language Disorder Receptive/Expressive Language Disorder ADHD ADHD/LD Combined Motor Impaired Autism/Aspergers TBI – Open TBI – Closed Intellectually Gifted Enhancing Clinical Utility Extending the Age Range. The age-range of the WPPSI–III has been extended downward to age 2 years 6 months. This downward extension was designed to bridge the 6-month gap in age ranges between the WPPSI–R and the BSID–II. (should I say this – since other measures already bridged the gap? add references about increasing assessment of very young children, importance of early diagnosis.identification of cognitive problems) Clinical Studies. A number of clinical groups were included in both the tryout and standardization phases of test development. The WPPSI–III was administered to children with mental retardation, cognitive giftedness, developmental delay, risk factors for developmental delay, language disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), reading delay, and motor impairment. A comparison of clinical and non-clinical performance should allow the practitioner to describe a child’s performance relative to his or her appropriate reference group. Validity Studies. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC–III; Wechsler, 1991) was co-normed with the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition (WIAT–II; The Psychological Corporation, 2001). This linkage provides examiners more information about the interrelationship of a broader spectrum of cognitive abilities. This co-norming has also enabled examiners to “predict” an examinee’s achievement scores on the basis of his or her intellectual ability score. To allow for such predictions with the WPPSI–III, the WPPSI–III and the WIAT were linked for 4- to 7-year-olds.

Enhancing Clinical Utility Increased Linkage and Correlations with Other Assessments Equivalency studies with WISC-III, WAIS-III, WPPSI-III, WASI, approximately 200 cases each, counterbalanced WIAT-II Link, 550 cases CMS Link, 110 cases Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS) Link, 200 cases each for Parent/Teacher forms Bar-ON EQ, 200 cases Gifted Rating Scale, 240 cases

Improved Psychometric Properties Updating Norms Improving Evidence of Reliability and Validity Extending Floors and Ceilings Re-examining Item Bias

Increased User-Friendliness Decreasing Testing Time Simplifying Administration and Scoring Procedures Improving Stimulus Materials Eliminating the Object Assembly subtest Dividing and Reorganizing the Manual Dividing and Reorganizing the Record Form

Reasons for Updating Norms Improvement in Education System Improved nutrition Better health conditions Increased dissemination of information Demographic shifts Hispanic population growth (11% to 15%) Regional growth (Growth in West and South at the expense of NE)

Basic Description of the New WISC–IV

WISC–IV Model

Basic Description of the WISC–IV Individual Administration Assessment of Cognitive Functioning in Children 6–16 Years 10 Subtests to obtain FSIQ 10 Subtests to obtain Index Scores 3 Core Verbal and 3 Core Perceptual Reasoning Subtests 2 Core Working Memory and 2 Core Processing Speed Subtests Administration time: median = 67 minutes

Verbal Comprehension Index Core Subtests: Similarities Vocabulary Comprehension Supplementary Subtests: Information Word Reasoning

Perceptual Reasoning Index Core Subtests: Block Design Picture Concepts Matrix Reasoning Supplementary Subtest: Picture Completion

Working Memory Index Core Subtests: Supplementary Subtest: Digit Span Letter-Number Sequencing Supplementary Subtest: Arithmetic

Processing Speed Index Core Subtests: Coding Symbol Search Supplementary Subtest: Cancellation

Order of WISC-IV Subtests Core Subtests Block Design Similarities Digit Span Picture Concepts Coding Vocabulary Letter – Number Sequencing Matrix Reasoning Comprehension Symbol Search Supplemental Subtests Picture Completion Cancellation Information Arithmetic Word Reasoning

Block Design 14 items—two parts 3 new items designed to improve ceiling and item difficulty gradient No time-bonus administration option

Block Design Any pronounced rotation of 30o or more is considered an error. Correct only the first rotation that occurs by rotating the blocks to the correct position and saying, “See, it goes this way.” Continue subtest administration accordingly.

Block Design Designed to measure the ability to analyze and synthesize abstract visual stimuli and nonverbal concept formation. Involves nonverbal fluid reasoning, visual perception and organization, visual-motor coordination, spatial visualization, and the ability to separate figure and ground in visual stimuli.

Similarities “In what way are RED and BLUE alike?” Core Subtest 23 items 11 new items–Scoring criteria modified Practice items reduced from 5 to 2 “In what way are RED and BLUE alike?”

Similarities Designed to measure fluid verbal reasoning and concept formation. Also involves auditory comprehension, memory, distinguishing non-essential and essential features, and verbal expression.

Digit Span Digit Span Forward requires the child to repeat numbers in the same order the examiner reads aloud. Digit Span Backward requires the child to repeat the numbers in the reverse order presented by the examiner.

Digit Span Designed as a measure of working memory (initial encoding & mental manipulation), auditory short-term memory, sequencing skills, attention, and concentration. Digit Span Forward involves initial encoding, attention,and auditory processing. Digit Span Backward involves mental manipulation, transformation of information, and visuospatial imaging. Shift from the Forward to the Backward task requires cognitive flexibility and mental alertness.

Picture Concepts 28 items–The child is presented with two or three rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic.

Picture Concepts Designed to measure abstract, fluid, and categorical reasoning ability. Solutions to easier items are generally attained by reasoning based on concrete representations, and the solutions to more difficult items are obtained by reasoning based on more abstract representations.

Coding Measures processing speed Involves short-term memory, learning ability, visual perception, visual-motor coordination, visual scanning ability, cognitive flexibility, attention, motivation and visual and sequential processing.

Vocabulary “What is a car?” 36 items 4 picture items designed to extend the floor of the subtest. 32 verbal items—5 new items to improve item difficulty gradient. Scoring modifications on all items. “What is a car?”

Vocabulary Designed to assess a child’s word knowledge and degree of language development. Also designed to measure a child’s fund of knowledge, learning ability, long-term memory, and verbal concept formation. Other abilities that may be utilized include auditory perception and comprehension, verbal conceptualization, abstract thinking, and verbal expression.

Letter-Number Sequencing Measures Working Memory Adapted from the WAIS–III Child is presented a series of numbers and letters. The child repeats numbers then letters in order. Involves sequencing, mental manipulation, attention, short-term auditory memory, visuospatial imaging, and processing speed.

Letter-Number Sequencing Example: Examiner says, “7 K 3 D 9” Child responds, “3 7 9 D K”

Definitions of Fluid Reasoning It is the “ability to perform mental operations, such as the manipulation of abstract symbols” Sternberg, 1995 It is Gf from the Horn–Catell model Catell, 1941; Horn, 1968 It encompasses the abilities of reasoning under novel conditions: general reasoning, figural relations, semantic relations, classifications, concept formation. Horn & Noll, 1997

Matrix Reasoning 35 items—child completes matrices from five response options.

Matrix Reasoning Measure of fluid intelligence and a reliable estimate of general intellectual ability. Four types of matrices including: continuous and discrete pattern completion, classification, analogical reasoning, and serial reasoning.

“Why do people brush their teeth?” Comprehension 21 items—all items require the child to answer questions. 11 new items and 10 items retained. “Why do people brush their teeth?”

Comprehension Measures verbal reasoning and conceptualization, the ability to evaluate and utilize past experiences, verbal comprehension and expression, and the ability to demonstrate practical information. Involves knowledge of conventional standards of behavior, social judgment, maturity, and common sense.

Symbol Search Nonverbal Measure of Processing Speed Uses abstract symbols 2 target symbols per item 5 search symbols per item Equal difficulty across all items Difficulty range from .85 to 1.0

Symbol Search Involves processing speed, short-term visual memory, visual-motor coordination, cognitive flexibility, visual discrimination, and concentration. May also tap auditory comprehension, perceptual organization, and planning and learning ability.

Picture Completion 38 items—all artwork has been redrawn, enlarged and colorized. 25 items retained, 13 new items to improve difficulty gradient.

Picture Completion Now a Supplemental Subtest. Measures visual perception and organization, concentration, and visual recognition of essential details of objects.

Cancellation Supplemental Subtest Measure of Processing Speed 2 forms (Random, Structured) Forms share identical target locations. Targets are animals. Foils are common, non-animal objects.

Random vs. Structured (Targets in same location) Measures processing speed, visual selective attention, vigilance, and visual neglect.

Information “Show me your foot.” 33 items 11 new verbal items—22 retained from WISC–III. Some scoring modifications. “Show me your foot.”

Information Designed to assess a child’s ability to acquire, retain, and retrieve general factual knowledge, commonly referred to as general fund of knowledge. Involves crystallized intelligence, long-term memory, and the ability to retain and retrieve knowledge from school and environment. Also involves auditory perception and comprehension and verbal expressive ability.

Arithmetic Supplemental Working Memory Subtest The child mentally solves a series of orally presented arithmetic problems within a specified time limit. “Count these birds with your finger. Count them out loud so I can hear you.”

Arithmetic Involves mental manipulation, concentration, attention, short- and long-term memory, numerical reasoning ability, and mental alertness. May also involve sequencing, fluid reasoning, and logical reasoning.

Word Reasoning 24 items—Examiner reads increasingly specific series of one to three clues and the child is asked to identify the common object or concept. “Tell me what I’m thinking of. This is an animal that goes ‘woof.’ What is it?” “Tell me what I’m thinking of. This has a long handle… and is used with water to clean the floor.

Word Reasoning Measures verbal deductive reasoning. Skills that contribute to success include verbal comprehension, expressive language ability, verbal abstraction, domain knowledge, analogic and general reasoning, ability to utilize contextual and syntax information, generate alternative concepts, and integrate and synthesize different types of information. Other contributing skills include long-term memory, cognitive flexibility, and trial-and-error learning.

Technical Development and Standardization

Phases of Conceptual Development Review of WISC–III Item Development Advisory Panel and Clinical Consultants Focus Groups and Telephone Surveys Surveys of Experts and Examiners Pilot Stage Tryout Stage Standardization Stage Final Assembly and Evaluation

Demographic Stratification Variables Age Sex Race/Ethnicity Parent Education Level Geographic Region

Stratification Variables: Age 6:00 - 6:11 7:00 7:11 8:00 8:11 9:00 9:11 10:00 -10:11 11:00 -11:11 13:00 -13:11 14:00 -14:11 WISC- IV 200 12:00 -12:11 15:00 - 15:11 16:00 16:11

Stratification Variables: Sex Female n = 1100; Male n = 1100 Age Group

Stratification Variables: Race/Ethnicity

Stratification Variables: Parent Education Level

Stratification Variables: Geographic Region

Exclusionary Criteria for Standardization Sample

Additional Sampling Issues Ethnicity/Bias Oversample during Tryout Phase Education Level Oversample Validity Data From Clinical Groups Correlational Data From Other Tests Test–Retest Data

Evidence of Reliability

Concept of Reliability Refers to the accuracy, consistency, and stability of test scores across situations The difference between the hypothetical true score and the individual’s obtained test score is measurement error. A reliable test will have relatively small measurement error and consistent measurement results within one administration and on different occasions.

Evidence of Internal Consistency The reliability coefficients for WISC–IV composite scales range from .88 (Processing Speed) to .97 (Full Scale). The average reliability coefficients of the WISC–IV subtests range from .79 (Symbol Search and Cancellation) to .90 (Letter–Number Sequencing). All remaining reliability coefficients range from .80 (Word Reasoning) to .89 (Vocabulary and Matrix Reasoning).

Reliability Coefficients of the Subtests, Process Scores, and Composite Scales, by Age Group

Reliability Coefficients of the Subtests and Process Scores for Special Groups

Evidence of Test–Retest Reliability

Evidence of Interscorer Reliability All WISC–IV protocols were double-scored by two independent scorers, and evidence of interscorer agreement was obtained using the normative sample. Because the scoring criteria for most of the subtests are simple and objective, interscorer agreement is very high, ranging from .98 to .99. Total subtest scores were used in the analysis, interscorer reliabilities were .98 for Similarities, .98 for Vocabulary, .95 for Comprehension, .96 for Information, and .97 for Word Reasoning.

Evidence of Validity

Exploratory Factor Pattern Loadings for Core Subtests

Exploratory Factor Pattern Loadings for Core and Supplemental Subtests

Clinical Validity Studies

Clinical Linking Studies Mental Retardation – Mild WISC-IV WISC-IV Integrated Mental Retardation – Moderate Learning Disorder – Reading Learning Disorder – Reading, Writing Learning Disorder – Reading, Writing, Math Learning Disorder – Math WISC-IV WISC-IV Integrated WIAT-II PAL Receptive Language Disorder Receptive/Expressive Language Disorder WISC-IV WISC-IV Integrated CELF-4

Clinical Linking Studies ADHD ADHD/LD Combined WISC-IV WISC-IV Integrated BROWN ADHD Motor Impaired WISC-IV Autism/Aspergers WISC-IV WISC-IV Integrated TBI – Open WISC-IV WISC-IV Integrated NEPSY D-KEFS TBI – Closed WISC-IV WISC-IV Integrated NEPSY D-KEFS Gifted WISC-IV D-KEFS EQ GRS

The Record Form

Calculating Examinee’s Age Enter Date of Testing in format Year/Month/Day Enter Date of Birth in format Year/Month/Day Subtract Day, then Month, then Year. (All months are assumed to have 30 days.) DO NOT round up.

Completing the Summary Page Calculate Subtest Total Raw Scores Convert Total Raw Scores to Scaled Scores Obtain Sums of Scaled Scores Determine the Composite Scores Plot the Score Profiles

Sample Completed Summary Page

Sample Conversion of Raw Scores to Scaled Scores

Completed Analysis Page

Completed Analysis Page

Scoring the WISC–IV

WISC–IV Software Related Information When a WISC–III Scoring Assistant user installs WISC–IV, the WISC–III raw scores window and WISC–III reports will still be available. In other words, WISC–IV is not an upgrade of WISC–III. It is added to the platform as a new and separate product. The WIAT–II Scoring Assistant is automatically updated to perform discrepancy analysis reporting with WISC–IV when WISC–IV is installed. A separate WIAT–II update CD is not necessary.

Wechsler Software Purchase Plan New Customers

Wechsler Software Purchase Plan Existing Customers

Software Packaging: A Modular Approach Future of software on the PsychCorpCenter (PCC) is taking modular approach (one instrument per application) Allows for ease in maintenance and serviceability Still allows for report integration across instruments (WISC–IV— WIAT–II, WISC-III—WIAT–II, WPPSI–III—WIAT–II discrepancy analysis) e.g., Discrepany Analysis Reporting

Interpretation

Interpretation of WISC–IV Scores Subtest Scaled Scores: Mean = 10, SD = 3 IQ and Index Scores: Mean = 100, SD = 15 Individual’s Rank Compared to Normative Group FSIQ Score: Overall Ability Index Scores: Breakdown of Abilities Subtest Scores: Strengths and Weaknesses

Enhancement of Clinical Interpretation Qualitative Descriptions of FSIQ Score and Index Scores Confidence Intervals Additional Tables for Determining Statistical Significance Base Rates for Discrepancy Scores (Overall and by Ability Level) Age-Corrected Subtest Scaled Scores Discrepancies Between Digit Span Forward and Backward

Conceptualization Structure Core Input Requirements e.g., Hearing, Vision, Motor Core Processing and Output Requirements Minimum verbal expression to maximum verbal expression required. Minimum motor output required to maximum motor output required. Maximum structure and organization provided to minimum amount of structure and organization required. Maximum amount of contextual information provided to minimum amount of contextual information provided.

Conceptualization Structure Characteristics of Response Correct, Efficient, and Automatic Incorrect, Efficient, and Automatic Correct, Inefficient, and Effortful Incorrect, Inefficient, and Effortful

Qualitative Descriptions of IQ Scores Classification % Included in Theoretical Normal Curve 130 and above 120–129 110–119 90–109 80–89 70–79 69 and below Very Superior Superior High Average Average Low Average Borderline Extremely Low 2.2 6.7 16.1 50.0

Using the Qualitative Descriptions Relative to individuals of comparable age, this individual is currently functioning in the [descriptive classification] range on a standardized measure of intelligence.

Example of Subtest Profiles LNS = DS = A LNS > DS > A Subtests Index Subtests Index

Patterns and Profiles of Performance Profile analyses can be used to evaluate scatter within or among FSIQ, Index Scores and Subtests. Profile analyses can be used to generate hypotheses that are either corroborated or refuted by other evaluation results, such as background information, direct behavioral observation, additional evaluation, consistency with injury or disorder.

WISC-IV Levels of Performance FSIQ VCI PRI WMI PSI Block Design Matrix Reasoning Picture Concepts Picture Completion Similarities Vocabulary Comprehension Information Word Reasoning Coding Symbol Search Cancellation Digit Span Letter-Number Sequencing Arithmetic Subtests in Italics are Supplemental

Statistical Versus Clinical Significance “Although statistically significant differences between scores can occur in many clinical groups, the same differences may also occur frequently in the normally functioning population.” Matarazzo, 1990 Base rate information provides a basis for estimating the rarity or commonness of the examinee’s obtained difference within the normal adult population.

Statistical Significance of Index Score Differences A statistically significant difference between scores, e.g., between the VCI and the PRI, refers to the likelihood that obtaining such a difference by chance is very low (e.g., p < .05) if the true difference between the scores is 0 (Matarazzo & Herman, 1985). The level of significance reflects the level of confidence the examiner can have that the difference between the scores, called the difference score, is a true difference.

Frequency of Index Score Differences The prevalence or frequency of an observed score difference in the general population is also referred to as the base rate. Often the difference between an individual’s composite scores (e.g., VCI and PRI) is significant in the statistical sense, but is not infrequent. The statistical significance of differences between scores and the rarity of the difference are two different issues and consequently have different implications for test interpretation. (Matarazzo & Herman, 1985; Payne & Jones, 1957; Sattler, 2001; and Silverstein, 1981.)

Frequency of Index Score Differences Index score discrepancies of the WISC–IV standardization sample vary as a function of ability level, not age. Table B.2 provides the base rate data by overall standardization sample and by ability level. Table B.2 also provides the base rate data by the direction of the difference and is based on findings that show the percentages of the score differences are not identical in both directions (Sattler, 2001). For example, for children whose FSIQ is 79 points or less, 16.7% obtained PRI scores 15 or more points higher than their VCI scores, whereas only 10.2% obtained VCI scores 15 or more points higher than their PRI scores.

Differences Between Subtest Scaled Scores An evaluation of the variability helps the practitioner identify the strengths and weaknesses of the child’s cognitive functioning. As with differences between the index scores, the interpretation of a particular subtest score as especially high or low should take into account the statistical significance of the observed difference and estimates of population base rates.

Related Assessments in Development

WISC–IV Spanish Available Winter 2004 / 2005 To be normed entirely in the U.S. Items adapted from WISC–IV Where adaptation is impossible, parallel items have been created. Norms equated to full US population. Available Winter 2004 / 2005

WISC–IV Integrated WISC–IV as a Process Instrument Data-based testing-the-limits Multiple-choice versions of WISC–IV verbal subtests and Block Design Spatial Span – Spatial Working Memory Elithorn Mazes – executive functions Frequencies of error types

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