Education, Equality, and National Citizenship Goodwin Liu Boalt Hall School of Law adapted from Education, Equality, and National Citizenship, Yale Law Journal (forthcoming December 2006) Interstate Inequality in Educational Opportunity, NYU Law Review (forthcoming December 2006) The Achievement Gap Conference Harvard Kennedy School of Government June 19, 2006

Current expenditures per pupil, ,380Georgia 7,434California 7,496Virginia 7,642Oregon 7,734Indiana 7,736Minnesota 7,741Nebraska 7,844West Virginia 7,935New Hampshire 7,956Illinois 8,069Ohio 8,537Pennsylvania 8,634Wisconsin 8,645Wyoming 8,653Michigan 8,692Maryland 8,818Maine 9,284Delaware 9,563Alaska 9,703Rhode Island 9,806Vermont 10,232Massachusetts 10,577Connecticut 11,218New York 11,793New Jersey 4,900Utah 5,354Mississippi 5,959Tennessee 5,964Arizona 6,011Idaho 6,029Alabama 6,079Nevada 6,213Florida 6,229Oklahoma 6,276Arkansas 6,424South Dakota 6,501North Carolina 6,523Kentucky 6,567Louisiana 6,709North Dakota 6,771Texas 6,882New Mexico 6,941Colorado 7,017South Carolina 7,039Washington 7,062Montana 7,135Missouri 7,306Hawaii 7,338Iowa 7,339Kansas 6,588Oregon 6,630Virginia 6,696North Dakota 6,703New Hampshire 6,762Georgia 6,868Minnesota 6,986Ohio 7,038West Virginia 7,059Kansas 7,079Indiana 7,126Iowa 7,129Pennsylvania 7,158Rhode Island 7,282Michigan 7,440Nebraska 7,442Maryland 7,475Massachusetts 7,674Maine 7,731Wisconsin 7,808Delaware 8,029Connecticut 8,087Wyoming 8,268New York 8,481Vermont 8,697New Jersey 4,505Utah 4,982Arizona 5,010Mississippi 5,338Florida 5,414Tennessee 5,423Nevada 5,463California 5,564Alabama 5,589Idaho 5,647Oklahoma 5,813New Mexico 5,819Washington 5,852Texas 5,866North Carolina 5,945Louisiana 5,973Arkansas 6,091Colorado 6,122Kentucky 6,271Hawaii 6,334Missouri 6,387South Carolina 6,459Montana 6,474South Dakota 6,474Alaska 6,479Illinois NOMINAL ADJUSTED

Cost-adjusted spending per weighted pupil, th (low) 50 th (med) 90 th (high) Mississippi North Carolina Connecticut $6,477$7,121 $8,855 $5,361$5,972 $7,004 $4,391$4,962$5,933 $4,000$5,000$6,000$7,000$8,000$9,000

Cost-adjusted spending per weighted pupil, th to 50th percentile districts

Cost-adjusted spending per weighted pupil, th to 90th percentile districts * * * *

Cost-adjusted spending per weighted pupil, th to 90th percentile districts

K-12 student demographics, (percentages) Bottom third Top third United States PoorHispanicBlackWhiteLEP

Percent “proficient” on NAEP 4th Grade Reading, 2005 Percent “proficient” on state test State standards = National standards “Best fit” line (average standards) National average

Percent “proficient” on NAEP 4th Grade Math, 2005 Percent “proficient” on state test

Percent “proficient” on NAEP 8th Grade Reading, 2005 Percent “proficient” on state test

Percent “proficient” on NAEP 8th Grade Math, 2005 Percent “proficient” on state test

REVENUE = CAPACITY × EFFORT State/local (nonfederal) revenue per pupil (cost adjustment, weighted pupils) State personal income (SPI) State gross product (SGP) Total taxable resources (TTR) per pupil Capacity/Revenue

New Jersey8, , Vermont8, , Wyoming8, , Connecticut8, , New York8, , Wisconsin8, , Michigan7, , Maryland7, , Hawaii7, , Minnesota7, , Maine7, , Ohio7, , Massachusetts7, , Iowa7, , Indiana7, , Delaware7, , Pennsylvania7, , Nonfederal revenue per pupil Capacity per pupil (TTR $000) Effort top third

Montana6, , Texas5, , Kentucky5, , Alaska5, , North Carolina5, , Arkansas5, , Louisiana5, , New Mexico5, , Alabama5, , Idaho5, , California5, , Arizona5, , Florida5, , Oklahoma5, , Tennessee5, , Utah4, , Mississippi4, , Nonfederal revenue per pupil Capacity per pupil (TTR $000) Effort bottom third

Measure of fiscal capacity Correlation with state revenue per pupil, Effort Capacity Adjusted TTR SPI Effort Capacity Nominal

Title I aid allocation = Poor children×State expenditure

% U.S. avg % U.S. avg 1,299 1,320 1,339 1,341 1,359 1,382 1,433 1,442 1,492 1,496 1,512 1,513 1,515 1,550 1,595 1,612 1,715 1,747 1,790 1,886 1,910 2,010 2,508 2,666 3,060 Adjusted ,060 1,074 1,101 1,102 1,106 1,120 1,124 1,130 1,133 1,160 1,166 1,186 1,200 1,205 1,208 1,211 1,235 1,236 1,269 1,281 1,297 Adjusted Title I aid per eligible child, 2003

$115,000,000111,985Oklahoma $159,000,000109,965Massachusetts $193,000,000193,358North Carolina $353,000,000200,757Michigan Title I aid, 2003 (cost-adjusted) # poor children Michigan gets 83% more than North Carolina Massachusetts gets 37% more than Oklahoma

Policy recommendations  National standards  Federal school finance reform Fix Title I National foundation plan Minimum state effort Federal aid inversely proportional to state capacity