Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO ILO Tripartite Meeting of Experts on “Youth Employment in the Arab States Amman (Jordan), 6-8 April 2004

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Gender Equality and Youth Employment: Reflections on Middle East & North Africa

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Outline Definitions Definitions Global and Regional Trends Global and Regional Trends Trends and Indicators in MENA Trends and Indicators in MENA Good Practices Good Practices Next Steps Next Steps

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Gender equality is defined as women having the same opportunities in life as men in three domains: Gender equality is defined as women having the same opportunities in life as men in three domains: capabilitiescapabilities access to resources and opportunitiesaccess to resources and opportunities agency or the ability to influence and contribute to outcomesagency or the ability to influence and contribute to outcomes Defining Gender Equality

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Female life expectancy 100 Reducing Fertility Rate Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education GDP Per Capita $ Ratio of Women to Men in Non Agricultural Wage Employment Developing regions MENA %Seats Held by Women in Parliament Key Gender Equality Indicators, 2000

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Global and Regional Trends Gender Equality & Youth Employment

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Youth Unemployment Trends Rates of youth unemployment are 2-3 times as high as adult rates worldwide Rates of youth unemployment are 2-3 times as high as adult rates worldwide In developing countries, the gap between youth and adult unemployment rates are much wider than industrialized countries In developing countries, the gap between youth and adult unemployment rates are much wider than industrialized countries Teenagers between tend to face more difficulties in finding employment than young adults between 20 and 24 years of age as they are less well informed of market needs and realities Teenagers between tend to face more difficulties in finding employment than young adults between 20 and 24 years of age as they are less well informed of market needs and realities Source: ILO Global Employment Trends, 2004

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Gender & Youth Unemployment Globally, 35.8 million young women (15-24) are involuntarily without work Globally, 35.8 million young women (15-24) are involuntarily without work In all regions (except EA and SSA) young women’s unemployment rates are higher than young men’s In all regions (except EA and SSA) young women’s unemployment rates are higher than young men’s Female unemployment rate of 16.5% was 5.9% points higher than the male rate of 10.6 % in 2003 in MENA Female unemployment rate of 16.5% was 5.9% points higher than the male rate of 10.6 % in 2003 in MENA Unemployment for young women in MENA countries ranges from 13% in Bahrain to almost 39% in Algeria Unemployment for young women in MENA countries ranges from 13% in Bahrain to almost 39% in Algeria Unemployed women are mainly young new labor force entrants (with primary & secondary education), and laid off workers following restructuring and privatization - in Jordan, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt Unemployed women are mainly young new labor force entrants (with primary & secondary education), and laid off workers following restructuring and privatization - in Jordan, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt Source: ILO Global Employment Trends, 2004; ERF, 2000.

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Fertility & Employment Link Lower fertility rates & increased employment of women is likely to go hand in hand freeing their time from the care economy Lower fertility rates & increased employment of women is likely to go hand in hand freeing their time from the care economy In MENA, fertility rates remained relatively high in 2000 at 3.6 % and the female labor force participation is the lowest of all regions at 27.9 % In MENA, fertility rates remained relatively high in 2000 at 3.6 % and the female labor force participation is the lowest of all regions at 27.9 % Employment to Population Ratio In all regions, employment to population ratios are much smaller for women than for men In all regions, employment to population ratios are much smaller for women than for men The difference is highest in MENA where 2/10 working age women work compared to 7/10 men The difference is highest in MENA where 2/10 working age women work compared to 7/10 men Even if not all women of working age want to work, the fact that there is female unemployment shows that there are women who want to work, but are unable to find work in the region Even if not all women of working age want to work, the fact that there is female unemployment shows that there are women who want to work, but are unable to find work in the region

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Education & Employment Link Higher enrollment, completion rates and better quality of education for girls and boys is likely to lead to increased employment opportunities for both Higher enrollment, completion rates and better quality of education for girls and boys is likely to lead to increased employment opportunities for both MENA countries have achieved some substantial steps toward achieving gender equality in primary and secondary education, employment opportunities for young women have been limited MENA countries have achieved some substantial steps toward achieving gender equality in primary and secondary education, employment opportunities for young women have been limited In the past decade MENA governments spent an average of 5.3 % of GDP on education—the highest in the world changing the supply, quality, and profile of the labor force--but it has not translated into young women’s employment In the past decade MENA governments spent an average of 5.3 % of GDP on education—the highest in the world changing the supply, quality, and profile of the labor force--but it has not translated into young women’s employment

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Female to Male Primary Enrollment Ratios, 2000 Female to Male Secondary Enrollment Ratios, 2000 In Egypt, educated women are more likely to be unemployed than educated men In Jordan, educated women, especially graduates of community colleges face high unemployment levels

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Gender Segregation Women obtain “suitable skills” often via shorter training and informal courses compared to men Segregation in training is followed by segregation in the workplace creating a vicious cycle Young women and men are concentrated in different types of work and their ‘paths’ to work are different and so likely are the impacts upon them. Young women and men are concentrated in different types of work and their ‘paths’ to work are different and so likely are the impacts upon them. Women who spend time outside the labor market find out that lack of training leads to low quality jobs and low paid work that, in turn, offer little additional training.

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Public and Private Sector Trends Public sector jobs were safeguards for women in a number of countries in the region, but with the reform and privatization processes, public sector is no longer the main option for young women out of school Private sector jobs are open to young women, although they come with limited or no job security or benefits. Temporary contracts are common with significant implications for decent work The main source of employment generation has shifted to the private sector and this has adversely affected opportunities for women. Attention to the equality of opportunity and treatment in employment needs to be sustained

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Employment distribution by sector Women have a higher share of agricultural employment in MENA, young and adult. Most of them are in the unpaid family worker category of employment Women have a higher share of agricultural employment in MENA, young and adult. Most of them are in the unpaid family worker category of employment Within services, women are still concentrated in sectors that are traditionally associated with gender roles in community, social and personal services Within services, women are still concentrated in sectors that are traditionally associated with gender roles in community, social and personal services In all developing regions, women’s share in industry is lower than men’s, although employment in EPZ is women intensive, and even more so young women intensive (textiles, leather, electronics) In all developing regions, women’s share in industry is lower than men’s, although employment in EPZ is women intensive, and even more so young women intensive (textiles, leather, electronics) Young women had opportunities in manufacturing, especially in Tunisia, Morocco and Jordan although there is a high incidence of non-regular and non- salaried activity among young women in this sector and a wide gap in earnings Young women had opportunities in manufacturing, especially in Tunisia, Morocco and Jordan although there is a high incidence of non-regular and non- salaried activity among young women in this sector and a wide gap in earnings In professional services, women are still more likely to be found in “women’s jobs” as teaching, nursing where with good education and training continue to be an employment outlet for young women. In professional services, women are still more likely to be found in “women’s jobs” as teaching, nursing where with good education and training continue to be an employment outlet for young women.

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Where are the missing girls? They are missing from the statistics as they are out of school in late teens, so they are not in education statistics. They are missing from the statistics as they are out of school in late teens, so they are not in education statistics. They are getting married later due to recent delays in entry into marriage age. So they are not in the marriage market They are getting married later due to recent delays in entry into marriage age. So they are not in the marriage market They are not in labor market looking at the low levels of participation. So where are they? They are not in labor market looking at the low levels of participation. So where are they? Are they in unpaid care economy?Are they in unpaid care economy? Informal employment?Informal employment? This is the underlying question that needs to be explored by school to work transition surveys and addressed through policy and program interventions This is the underlying question that needs to be explored by school to work transition surveys and addressed through policy and program interventions

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Informal Employment 1. The majority of workers* worldwide work informally. More than 50% in Sub-saharan Africa and South Asia; 33% in North Africa and Middle East More than 50% in Sub-saharan Africa and South Asia; 33% in North Africa and Middle East 2. Their risk to be poor is higher compared to formal workers. e.g. in developed countries 30-50% of employees work in non-standard work arrangements. A majority of them: working poor. e.g. in developed countries 30-50% of employees work in non-standard work arrangements. A majority of them: working poor. 3. Women and young people are overrepresented in non-standard and informal employment relationships. In Latin-America 30-70% of women workers are informally employed. In Latin-America 30-70% of women workers are informally employed. Hence, there is a statistically significant overlap between being female, being informally employed and being poor. * „Worker“ refers to any kind of income-generating activity including self-employment, (unpaid) work of family members in family businesses etc.

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Reasons for Gender Inequality & Youth Employment Trends in MENA

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Gender Specific Constraints Young women have more limited access to labor market relevant Young women have more limited access to labor market relevant capabilities (skills, knowledge, self- esteem, confidence Across the life cycle women have more limited access to productive resources (land, capital, livestock) compared to their male counterparts Across the life cycle women have more limited access to productive resources (land, capital, livestock) compared to their male counterparts There is a male-bread winner bias in the labor market despite the pressing economic realities in poor households which require more than one income There is a male-bread winner bias in the labor market despite the pressing economic realities in poor households which require more than one income There are continued mobility constraints on young women and women in general in many communities in the region (some due to security concerns in conflict areas like Iraq and Palestine) There are continued mobility constraints on young women and women in general in many communities in the region (some due to security concerns in conflict areas like Iraq and Palestine) Young women face employer and lender biases and are overrepresented among unpaid family workers, part time, low wage earners, unemployed & inactive Young women face employer and lender biases and are overrepresented among unpaid family workers, part time, low wage earners, unemployed & inactive Early marriage and child bearing and rearing can also inhibit young women’s integration into labor market Early marriage and child bearing and rearing can also inhibit young women’s integration into labor market

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Labor Market Failures Impede absorption of young women entrants. Employers may be unwilling to incur the “perceived” transaction costs and risks in hiring young women Impede absorption of young women entrants. Employers may be unwilling to incur the “perceived” transaction costs and risks in hiring young women “Perceptions” hold considering the high levels of male unemployment and expectations of male bread winner despite the changing economic and social realities “Perceptions” hold considering the high levels of male unemployment and expectations of male bread winner despite the changing economic and social realities Formal credit markets often exclude women who are less likely than men to own land and other collateral. Because of the uncertainty associated with lending to beginners and informational asymmetries (between older/younger workers and between women/men) formal credit markets are not responsive to young people and especially young women Formal credit markets often exclude women who are less likely than men to own land and other collateral. Because of the uncertainty associated with lending to beginners and informational asymmetries (between older/younger workers and between women/men) formal credit markets are not responsive to young people and especially young women Being based in small towns, rural area markets makes it hard to start a business or search for and travel to work or to expand output and sales due to poor infrastructure, lack of information and market thinness Being based in small towns, rural area markets makes it hard to start a business or search for and travel to work or to expand output and sales due to poor infrastructure, lack of information and market thinness

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Good Practices Ensuring Gender Equality in Youth Employment in MENA

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO School to Work Transition Surveys JORDAN Conducted through ILO GENPROM in a number of countries including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Jordan Conducted through ILO GENPROM in a number of countries including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Jordan Female and male interviewees from five target groups: in-school youth, job seekers, young employees, young self-employed and own-account workers & employers & managers of young people Female and male interviewees from five target groups: in-school youth, job seekers, young employees, young self-employed and own-account workers & employers & managers of young people Determines how well the education/training system prepares young people for the labor market, their perceptions and aspirations for entering the labor market, how they actually conduct the job search, the influence of the family in choice of occupations, whether they prefer wage or self employment, the barriers to and supports for entry into the labor market, attitudes of employers towards hiring young workers, how young people view work, marriage and family responsibilities Determines how well the education/training system prepares young people for the labor market, their perceptions and aspirations for entering the labor market, how they actually conduct the job search, the influence of the family in choice of occupations, whether they prefer wage or self employment, the barriers to and supports for entry into the labor market, attitudes of employers towards hiring young workers, how young people view work, marriage and family responsibilities Gender differentials - especially why it is harder for young women than for young men to make the transition from school to work Gender differentials - especially why it is harder for young women than for young men to make the transition from school to work

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO IT Training: Partnership with Corporate Sector UNIFEM, Cisco Systems, Government of Jordan, YMCA, UNRWA and UNDP UNIFEM, Cisco Systems, Government of Jordan, YMCA, UNRWA and UNDP Training to bridge gender gap in IT sector Training to bridge gender gap in IT sector Over 200 young women underwent a two-month training in IT skills Over 200 young women underwent a two-month training in IT skills Training designed to help female students build technological knowledge & improve competitiveness in the labor market Training designed to help female students build technological knowledge & improve competitiveness in the labor market A job-placement program helps students put their skills to use A job-placement program helps students put their skills to use Tracking of graduates to evaluate the benefits of the training Tracking of graduates to evaluate the benefits of the training

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Next Steps Gender Equality and Youth Employment in MENA

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Life Cycle Approach & Social Partners Youth is a challenging stage because individuals are increasingly expanding their roles and responsibilities without the protections often provided other groups Youth is a challenging stage because individuals are increasingly expanding their roles and responsibilities without the protections often provided other groups Decisions and investments in youth have implications for labor market in the later stages of life and market relevant skills need to be a part of a life long learning Decisions and investments in youth have implications for labor market in the later stages of life and market relevant skills need to be a part of a life long learning Life long learning is important for women and men, but women’s participation in the care economy mean that their skills can be interrupted and therefore outdated Life long learning is important for women and men, but women’s participation in the care economy mean that their skills can be interrupted and therefore outdated Social partners have a role to play in promoting equality of opportunity, e.g. trade unions increasing young women as members of trade unions and articulate, strong young leaders in the ranks of trade unions Social partners have a role to play in promoting equality of opportunity, e.g. trade unions increasing young women as members of trade unions and articulate, strong young leaders in the ranks of trade unions

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Data and Research Needs Improving the availability and quality of sex- disaggregated data on labor markets including ILO’s efforts to collect data on women’s informal employment and gender earnings gaps Improving the availability and quality of sex- disaggregated data on labor markets including ILO’s efforts to collect data on women’s informal employment and gender earnings gaps Conducting longitudinal research on causal pathways through which programs and policies affect outcomes answering questions such as: Conducting longitudinal research on causal pathways through which programs and policies affect outcomes answering questions such as: Are programs using a multisectoral or integrated approach more effective?Are programs using a multisectoral or integrated approach more effective? How do contextual factors influence the situation of youth and the success of interventions?How do contextual factors influence the situation of youth and the success of interventions? How does the diversity of youth (girls/boys, urban/rural) influence the potential success of a program or policy?How does the diversity of youth (girls/boys, urban/rural) influence the potential success of a program or policy? What are the critical ages/time periods for various interventions?What are the critical ages/time periods for various interventions? How much do programs cost? How much are the potential benefits worth?How much do programs cost? How much are the potential benefits worth?

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Policy responses Gender responsive laws and policy approaches in Gender responsive laws and policy approaches in Job creation, finance, micro-finance, safety netsJob creation, finance, micro-finance, safety nets Quality vocational training programsQuality vocational training programs Infrastructure and urbanInfrastructure and urban Rural development/agricultureRural development/agriculture Labor codesLabor codes Public sector budgetingPublic sector budgeting National policy frameworks (PRSPs & Youth Employment Action Plans)National policy frameworks (PRSPs & Youth Employment Action Plans) Investing in young women by prioritizing Investing in young women by prioritizing Secondary educationSecondary education Transition from education to workTransition from education to work Quality and labor market relevant trainingQuality and labor market relevant training Physical safetyPhysical safety

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO THANK YOU!