Standardization of IV Goal: All subjects experience the IV in the same way. Procedural standardization: Standardize IV as given by E Flexibility in IV presentation: Standardize IV as experienced by S Problems with flexibility? Eina kleina “knock knock” music

Standardization: Procedural and Psychological Stimulus Event  This is event we can standardize Stimulus Perception  This is event we ultimately want to standardize, but can’t directly control Response This is event intended to reflect only intended stimulus, and not any unintended stimulus.

Standardization: Procedural and Psychological Stimulus Event  Stimulus Perception  Response

Pilot Testing of IV Purpose: ID problems before experiment begins 1. Power of manipulation 2. Clarity: Alternative interpretations? 3. Presentation a. Believable? b. Production value? 4. Artifacts 5. Opportunity to bolster

Methods of Piloting 1. Interview subjects a. subs are great info source b. Highly motivated to help c. Probe after IV, NOT at end of study (WHY?) d. Problems with interviewing? 2. Test against objective criterion a. Stress IV – bio measures b. Use experts: Feedback task, professional tutors

Pilot Testing Using Objective Criteria Prediction: Distress will lead urbanites, but not rural folk, to disclose personal feelings. Conceptual IV: Distress Empirical Realization of IV : Disturbing movie clip (e.g., Titanic sinks) Pilot Test Goal: Is movie upsetting? Post-Expt. Interviews: Limited value; if prediction is true, rural folk might not provide reliable info. Objective Criteria: Non-verbal reactions (HR, GSR)

Internal Analysis Purpose: To find out why experiment didn't work To understand why experiment did work Tools: a. Manipulation Checks b. Post hoc data analyses Limits to conclusions from internal analyses

Subliminal Priming: Special Class of IV Purpose: Short cut to psyche; direct path into black box * Get past conscious editor * Activate otherwise inaccessible mental processes Nature: Exist between “instruction” and “event” manipulations. Examples: * “Mommy and I are one”: Silverstein  lower psych. symptoms  Improve learning * Happy/sad faces: Winkielman  Ratings of Koolaid  Consumption of Koolaid

Dependent Variables Class 09

Dependent Variables: Conceptual vs. Experimental ConceptualExperimental Hitting Aggression Health Status Blood Pressure GPA X X X X X

How Sad Am I? Subjects see a tragically sad movie How sad are you? __ Not at all __ Somewhat ___ A lot. How much did you want to cry? __ Not at all __ Somewhat ___ A lot How much do you need to talk about this? __ Not at all __ Somewhat ___ A lot VERSUS Observe walking speed after seeing sad movie.

What to Consider when Selecting Dependent Variables What behavior best represents conceptual DV? DV should capture richness and power of response to IV DV should be reliable and non-obvious DV should be as easy to use and economical as possible Subs. should take DV seriously DV should be ethical

Expt’l DV Follow boring instructions Follow embarrassing instructions Follow instructions that hurt another against that person’s will Yeah, but... Lots of expts. are boring Sometimes psych is interested in personal, hidden stuff Holy Moly!!! Centrality of Experimental DV to Conceptual DV Conceptual DV Obedience

Classes of DV Measures Verbal Measures (surveys, interviews) Behavioral Overt behavior Behavioroid Physiological

Advantages of Verbal Measures Easy to use Face validity: apparent direct access to thoughts, feelings Provide multiple opportunities to respond to IV, where as behavioral is often single-shot Can provide for more sensitive, subtle measures.

Affirmative Action Measure 1. Do you favor Affirmative Action? ___ YES ___ NO Problems with this measure? Degree of favor? Favor for all groups? Favor all ways of implementing?

Scale Value THURSTONE SCALE Statement 0.01Affirmative action grossly violates the Bill of Rights. 0.52Affirmative action tends to create more harm than good. 1.03Affirmative action distracts people from real, underlying problems of social inequity 1.54Affirmative action is nice idea, but not the best solution. 2.05Ed. reform will do more good than affirmative action. 2.56Affirmative action can be justified in some instances. 3.07Affirmative action may help remedy hiring inequity in key businesses and regions. 3.58Affirmative action is the way to correct hiring inequities. 4.09Affirmative action should be national policy Affirmative action is crucial for a fair and just society. Subject A: Agrees with 2, 3, & 7 (  1.5). Mainly anti AA, but sees it can do some good. Subject B: Agrees with 3, 5, & 6 (  1.8). Mainly pro AA, but favors other social remedies.

Ranked Order Presented Order Statement A2Affirmative action is justified throughout society, due to history of discrimination. B3Affirmative action is justified, but only in industries where patterns of discrimination are indicated. C1Affirmative action is justified only in specific work places in which discrimination has been proven. D4Affirmative action is justified in only the most extreme cases. Guttman Scale

Guttman Scale Scoring Score X X X X X X X X Agrees with item: Disagrees with item: A B C D

PROBLEMS WITH GUTTMAN SCALE 1. Too labor intensive to create (90+ judges, etc.) 2. Too narrow in focus; effort to precisely determine why and how much people endorse becomes overly exclusive 3. Lack of sensitivity between same responses. 1. __ I believe Af. Act. is moral imperative 2. __ I believe Af. Act. is needed to move society forward. 3. __ I believe Af. Act. is good, but should end soon 4. __ I believe Af. Act. had done good, but it's time is up. Joe and Jody both endorse items 1-4. But for Joe, items 1 and 2 are of equal importance, for Jody 1 is of supreme importance. Guttman can't show this difference.

Likert Scales What is your view on affirmative action? Totally against 1 Mainly against 2 Some- what against 3 Neither for nor against 4 Some- what favor 5 Mainly favor 6 Totally favor 7 Rensis Likert

To what degree do you favor affirmative action for Asians? Not at all 1 Very Little 2 Some- what 3 Very Much 4 A Great Degree 5 To what degree do you favor affirmative action for African Americans? Not at all 1 Very Little 2 Some- what 3 Very Much 4 A Great Degree 5 To what degree do you favor affirmative action for Latinos? Not at all 1 Very Little 2 Some- what 3 Very Much 4 A Great Degree 5

Likert Scale Considerations 1.Label each choice option, or just the extremes? 2.How many choice-options? (i.e. 3, 5, 7, 9, 131?) 3.Unipolar or bipolar? 1.Two measures problem 2.Hiding in the middle

Bi-Modal Scales What is your view on gun control? Totally against -3 Mainly against -2 Some- what against Neither for nor against 0 Some- what favor 1 Mainly favor 2 Totally favor 3

Affirmative Action Measure 1. Do you favor special hiring consideration for women? Do you favor special hiring consideration for minorities? Do you favor use of hiring quotas? Do you favor employment of affirmative action officer? Should affirmative action be written into the Constitution? Are opponents of affirmative action bigots? Would you not vote for someone opposed to affirmative action?.34 Indentify Latent Constructs as Index of Attitude

Affirmative Action Measure 1. Do you favor special hiring consideration for women? 2. Do you favor special hiring consideration for minorities? 3. Do you favor use of hiring quotas? 4. Do you favor employment of affirmative action officer? 5. Do you favor special affirmative action training for managers? 6. Do you think there should be minimal hiring standards, regardless of background? 7. Do you think that the human resources department should provide special post-hiring services for women?

Semantic Differential (abridged) EVALUATIVE DIMENSION GoodBad BeautifulUgly SweetSour POTENCY DIMENSION StrongWeak LargeSmall HeavyLight ACTIVITY DIMENSION ActivePassive FastSlow HotCold

Affirmative Action Is: (EVALUATIVE DIMENSION) Good | | | | | | | | | | | |Bad Beautiful | | | | | | | | | | | | Ugly Sweet | | | | | | | | | | | | Sour POTENCY DIMENSION Strong | | | | | | | | | | | | Weak Large | | | | | | | | | | | | Small Heavy | | | | | | | | | | | | Light ACTIVITY DIMENSION Active | | | | | | | | | | | | Passive Fast | | | | | | | | | | | | Slow Hot | | | | | | | | | | | | Cold

Measure  Attitude  Behavior Support for Affirmative Action Survey  Degree values Affirmative Action  Votes for Affirmative Action laws. IMPLICIT MODEL OF ATTITUDE MEASURES

Problems with Verbal Measures Response Biases : 1. Social desirability 2. Sabotaging Affected by situations and contexts Salience problem: Ss know that they are being measured. a. High salience   attn, but  bias b. Low salience   attn but  accuracy Reactivity problem: IV = (IV + Measure) May require atypical depth of processing/introspection May assume that people know own inner states/inner processes more than they actually do.

Moral Values Inventory Rettig & Pasamanick, 1959 Sample items to display inter-generational limitations of empirical realization TO WHAT DEGREE WOULD YOU CONDONE: Item 6: Girls smoking cigarettes Item 3: Buying bootleg liquor under prohibition law Item 39: Seeking amusement on Sunday instead of going to church.

Behavioral Measures 1. Overt behavior 2. Behavioriod 3. Physiological Advantages of Behavioral Measures 1. More absorbing 2. Require less inference of rel. btwn IV and behavior, b/c measure IS behavior. 3. Tell a better story

Types of Behavioral Measures FrequencyExtent/Amount SpeedIntensity DurationPreference LatencySocial/Physical Distance Non-verbal Cues and Expressive Behaviors Unobtrusive Measures

Behavioroid Measures Defined: Measures INTENT to commit the behavior, w/o actually measuring or inducing behavior. Used when actual behavior is too impractical, unethical, or otherwise inappropriate.

Example of Behavioroid Measure Freedman and Fraser "Foot in the Door" Study JPSP, 1966 Behavioroid Measure: Willingness to have 2.5 hour intrusive survey of house conducted by 5 strangers. a. Asked to complete short questions, and asked:52.8% b. Asked to complete short survey, but not asked: 33.3% c. Familiarized with questions:27.8% d. Not previously contacted:22.2%

Physiological Measures Defined: Bodily states that reflect psychological states Examples: Blood pressure, heart rate, skin conductance Advantages: Problems: Not under conscious control Display mediation Costly; Intimidating to subjects; Typically gross, rather than subtle; Require inference to conceptual DV

Indirect Measures Measures that imply DV, without directly testing it. Overt Behavior Implied Behavior Physical distance from disabled person Discomfort Re-selling price for chosen item vs. given item. Subjective importance due to perceived control. Degree of eye contactAffection

Concluding Points Re. DVs 1. Which is the better feedback bias measure? a.Feedback bias = anticipated feedback to minority v. White b.Feedback bias = verbal comments to minority v. White confed. 2. Which is better measure of hostility to out-group ? a.Amount of shock delivered during “learning” task b.Physical distance during interview  Aim for actual and behavioral, rather than anticipated and non-behavioral  Expt. DV should be close to conceptual DV. 3. Which is better measure of health after disclosure? a.Visit vs. did not visit MD b.Number of MD visits  DV should be as precise as possible