Ethics system of principles governing morality and acceptable conduct system of principles governing morality and acceptable conduct principles of right or wrong that are accepted by an individual or social group principles of right or wrong that are accepted by an individual or social group

Roots of Human Rights Philosophy Commonalities of religion from East to West: basic understandings of human rights Commonalities of religion from East to West: basic understandings of human rights Religion as a justification for rights violations Religion as a justification for rights violations Problems of ambiguity and interpretation Problems of ambiguity and interpretation

Ancient Conceptions of Humanity Socrates and human nature Socrates and human nature Plato: concept of justice across political and social systems Plato: concept of justice across political and social systems Aristotle: Good laws make good men Aristotle: Good laws make good men

Roots of Philosophical Inquiry Status Status Education Education Access to system Access to system Risk Risk

Aristotle Political animals Political animals Beast or God Beast or God All systems of government are perverse All systems of government are perverse

Classical Natural Law: physical as well as ethical Jus gentium

St. Thomas Aquinas Natural law is divinely willed Natural law is divinely willed But limits to rulers’ power: for common good But limits to rulers’ power: for common good

Thomas Hobbes The essence of human life: solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. The essence of human life: solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. Self-interest Self-interest Social contract Social contract Contextual justice (only within community) Contextual justice (only within community) Society based on covenant Society based on covenant

John Locke Social contract, but only partial transfer of rights Social contract, but only partial transfer of rights Life, Liberty and Property Life, Liberty and Property Right of replacement Right of replacement

Thomas Paine “Human Rights” in press “Human Rights” in press “The Rights of Man” – reaction to French Revolution “The Rights of Man” – reaction to French Revolution Broadens definition of rights (education, social security) Broadens definition of rights (education, social security)

Jean-Jacque Rousseau Elaborates on the social contract Elaborates on the social contract Obligations and duties, in addition to rights Obligations and duties, in addition to rights Sovereignty Sovereignty

Bentham Utilitarianism Utilitarianism Questions “natural liberty” Questions “natural liberty” Law is a prerequisite to rights Law is a prerequisite to rights

John Stuart Mill: positivism with a ‘human face’ John Stuart Mill: positivism with a ‘human face’ Immanuel Kant: law is "the limitation of the freedom of any individual to the extent of its agreement with of all other individuals, so far as this is possible by a universal law" Immanuel Kant: law is "the limitation of the freedom of any individual to the extent of its agreement with of all other individuals, so far as this is possible by a universal law"

Reactions to Human Rights Theory Idealists Idealists Loyalists Loyalists Realists Realists

Karl Marx Questions individual rights Questions individual rights Historical processes and class warfare Historical processes and class warfare