General microbiology Meat most often spoils due to 1. chemical change (oxidative rancidity) or 2.microbial growth –fastest on fresh meat, may still be major spoilage problem for processed depending on product

– when an animal is slaughtered, it becomes a race to see who will get it first –microbial growth is likely because most meat cuts and products have a high water content (A w = 0.99) and are highly nutritious –contamination occurs as soon as the animal is slaughtered so constant intervention and addition of barriers is important to shelf life and safety

Contamination will include 1. mold 2. yeast 3. bacteria Bacteria are the primary problem because they grow fastest - but yeast and molds also cause problems in specific cases where bacteria are inhibited

Factors important to spoilage control/shelf life 1. initial numbers –most important for inactivation treatments log. survivors heating time

Spoilage of Frankfurters number of bacteria per gram time (days) spoilage level 15.5 o C (3 days) 10 o C (6 days) 4.5 o C (14 days) 0 o C (45 days) 15.5 o C (1 day) 10 o C (2 days) 4.5 o C (5 days) 0 o C (16 days)

2. temperatures –psychrophiles - can grow at 0 o C (32 o F) –mesophiles o C ( o F) –thermophiles o C ( o F)

Temperature Relationships of the Major Groups of Bacteria Psychrophiles (optimum temp.) Pseudomonas geniculuta Achromobacter guttatus o C212 o F Facultative thermophiles Streptococcus thermophilus Clostridium perfringens Mesophiles (optimum temp.) Escherichia coli Bacillus subtilis Obligate thermophiles (optimum temp.) Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum Bacillus stearothermophilus

Ground Beef Spoilage number of bacteria per gram time (hours) spoilage level 15.5 o C10 o C4.5 o C 0-2 o C

3. oxygen –aerobes –Pseudomonas - fresh meat –facultative anaerobes –lactic acid organisms –salted product –strict anaerobes 4. A w –available water –bacteria grow at about 0.91 or more –molds above ~ 0.75 –major role of salt

5. pH –reduced pH slows or inhibits growth –very dependent on organism 6. specific inhibitors –nitrite –diacetate –lactate –sorbate –organic acids –lactoferrin –bacteriocins

For control, processors combine or “stack” as many barriers together as possible to maximize inhibitory effects---Barrier concept –most are additive, a few are synergistic

Fresh meat spoilage is typically by psychrophilic, gram negative aerobes (Pseudomonas) or pychrophilic, gram positive, facultative anaerobes (lactics) - (vacuum-packaged fresh meat) processed products spoilage is most often by the lactics

Shelf life is an important issue and needs to be measured and understood for every product. –“accelerated” shelf life testing is the utilization of higher than normal temperature for relative comparisons of shelf life

Microbial pathogens/safety issues –Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - CDC (Atlanta) –often quoted for “food-borne illness causes 76 million cases per year of GI tract illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths per year.” –national investigative and monitoring organization –in 1996, CDC, USDA-APHIS and FDA established the food- borne Disease Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) - internet site to collect food-borne disease information –over 90% of food-related illness cases are caused by bacteria –about 60% of food related cases are from meat, poultry and fish –82% of cases are due to unknown causes

To help identify likely organisms: A. Categories of causes for illnesses 1. infection –live organisms ingested –salmonella 2. intoxication (poisoning) –toxin ingested –Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum 3. intoxification –live organisms which produce toxin after ingestion E. coli O157:H7

B. characteristics of outbreaks –onset time < 1 hr. - probably chemical –chemical causes can include ciguatoxin and scombrotoxin, both from fish as well as any environmental toxins –onset time may be dose related 1-7 hrs. - Staphylococcus aureus 8-14 hrs. - Clostridium perfringens over 14 hrs. - other organisms –intensity –Staph. –specific symptoms –paralysis - Cl. botulinum

Specific organisms of concern in meat products 1. Staphyloccus aureus –poisoning (toxin) –nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, diarrhea hrs onset --- severe! –usually cooked, prepared foods –does not compete well in raw foods (not refrigerated appropriately) –lowest growth ~ 45 o F 60 o F for toxin –killed by 145 o F cook, inhibited by acid –tolerate 17% salt –toxin is heat-stable –humans are most common source (at least 50% are carriers) Prevention: thorough cooking, rapid chilling, rapid acidification (fermentation)

2. Salmonella sp. (2000 types) –infection –G.I. upset - diarrhea, cramps, fever, vomiting, diarrhea included (flu-like) –usually cooked, recontaminated foods (eggs, chicken) or undercooked products –present on much fresh meat – separate fresh and finished (packaging) areas –needs 45 o F to grow –killed by 140 o F –very susceptible to salt –sources poultry ~ 60% pork, beef ~ 20% –second most common food pathogen ~1.4 million cases Prevention: cook appropriately, avoid recontamination

3. Clostridium botulinum - poisoning (toxin) – very potent neurotoxin blocks neuromuscular motor end plate –1 tablespoon would kill 1/2 of U.S. population –impaired swallowing, dizziness, poor coordination, muscle paralysis –botox cosmetic treatments to reduce skin wrinkles –recoveries improved by using respirators, etc. until effects wear off, still 10-20% mortality –low acid, vacuum cans/packages –need 250 o F for destruction –toxin is more heat-susceptible (80 o C -10 minutes) –susceptible to acids (below pH 5.0) –inhibited by nitrite –contamination level is low but widespread (outbreaks are rare) –honey suspected in some cases of infant botulism Prevention: appropriate cooking (retort), refrigeration, use of nitrite

4. Cl. perfringens –intoxification (live ingestion  toxin) –G.I. upset - diarrhea, cramps - seldom nausea –usually cooked products held at warm temperatures –needs at least 50 o F - o F –most common in foods held on steam tables for extended time –need 212 o F for inactivation –also susceptible to acid (5.0) and salt Prevention: appropriate cooking, rapid chilling

5. Listeria monocytogenes –often found in meat though dairy products are most common problem –concern is absorption and transport to other vital organs –causing abortions, meningitis, etc. –flu-like symptoms in normal individuals –refrigeration is not a safeguard –but needs oxygen for best growth –commonly found in processing plant environments, widespread in environment – salt tolerant (to 25%) – infection – survives and grows at ~ 32 o F very significant  heat sensitive, cooking to 160 o F is more than adequate – not a frequent problem (2,500 cases per year), but high fatalities Prevention: appropriate cooking, prevent recontamination

6. Yersinia enterocolitica –infection –tolerates refrigeration temperature well (to 33 o F) survives freezing –G.I. upset, diarrhea, fever, vomiting --- resembles appendicitis   from all livestock including dogs and cats but pork is most common source –acid (pH 4.6), salt and cold tolerant --- also survives vacuum –does not compete well with other organisms –will survive in fermented sausage but nitrite is quite effective for control Prevention: cook appropriately

7. Escherichia coli O157:H7 –first found in originally McDonalds (not publicized) –later Jack-in-the-Box case people - 3 deaths - lots of publicity –intoxification (live ingestion  toxins) –G.I. upset - bloody diarrhea and kidney failure in children –survives freezing and refrigeration very well but will not grow until about o F – heat sensitive –140 o F for less than 1 minute will kill 90% –now recommend cooking to 155 o F-160 o F internal temperature rather than 140 o F internal for cooked hamburgers –can survive in fermented sausage –primarily dairy cattle source (?) Prevention: appropriate cooking

8. Campylobacter jejuni –infection –cramps, diarrhea, headache, muscle pain –common in animal G.I. tracts – most frequent cause of bacterial food-borne illness but hasn’t received publicity ( ~ 2 million cases per year in food) Prevention: appropriate cooking

9. Shigella spp –intoxification (live ingestion and toxins) –similar to E. coli O157:H7 –believed to be source of genetic pathogenicity of E. coli –bloody diarrhea, cramps, fever –typically derived form fecal contamination (water sources) and under cooking - often sea foods –third most common food-caused illness organisms according to FoodNet Prevention: avoid contamination, appropriate cooking

10. Bacillus cereus –toxin ( 2 forms - short onset, - long onset) –sporeforming organism like clostridia that prefers warm temperatures –relatively quick onset hours ( may be min) - vomiting hours - diarrhea –generally need high numbers of organism –common soil organism, sources are usually dirt or dust –usually occurs in food held warm below 140 o F –long recognized but not one of the “majors” Prevention: appropriate cooking (thermophile) and appropriate chilling

11. Vibrio spp –intoxification (live ingestion  toxins) –V. cholera - toxin causing water-borne cholera –frequent world wide but not in U.S. –V. parahaemolyticus –diarrhea, cramps, fever sometimes nausea and vomiting –typical source is fish and seafood Prevention: appropriate cooking

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Characteristics of Some Pathogens of Significance in Meat Products Organism oxygen temp.( o C) pH(min) salt(max.) water activity(A w ) Clostridium botulinum anaerobe Staphylococcus aureusfacultative /0.90 Salmonella spp. facultative Listeria monocytogenes facultative Clostridium perfringensanaerobe Escherichia colifacultative

Additional sources of food-borne illness 1. Viruses –more common than bacteria as causes of food-borne illness (31 million cases per year) –Norwalk virus - flu-like symptoms –23 million cases per year ( ~ 9 million food-borne) 2. Non bacterial toxins a. scombroid poisoning –partially spoiled fish particularly mackerel and tuna –reason for icing fish ASAP –bacteria convert histidine (amino acid) to histamine and produce severe allergy-like reactions –nausea, vomiting, headache, hives, itching, breathing difficulties –onset may be 10 minutes Prevention: avoid “aged” fish

b. ciguatera poisoning –caused by a neurotoxin accumulated in fish (mackerel, snappers, etc.) –toxin comes from small marine food organisms/algae –symptoms can include numbness, tingling lips, temperature “switching” sensations, blurred vision, potential respiratory paralysis –usually resolved but can be fatal Prevention: avoid fish from areas with known marine organisms

c. shellfish poisoning –shellfish (mussels, clams, etc.) accumulate toxins form food organisms (algae/plankton) as well as high levels of bacteria and viruses from environment (“collectors”) –nausea, vomiting, tingling, paralysis Prevention: appropriate cooking for bacteria/viruses –avoid harvest during times when plankton/algae levels are high

d. tetrodo toxin –found in organs of puffer fish (blowfish) –rapid paralysis (neurotoxin) and likely death (4-6 hours) –requires skilled preparation of fish to avoid toxin contamination