Professor Chris Kendall

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Presentation transcript:

Professor Chris Kendall GEOL 325: Stratigraphy & Sedimentary Basins University of South Carolina Spring 2005 An Overview of Carbonates Professor Chris Kendall EWS 304 kendall@sc.edu 777.2410 GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Precipitated Sediments & Sedimentary Rocks An Epitaph to Limestones & Dolomites

Lecture Series Overview sediment production types of sediment and sedimentary rocks sediment transport and deposition depositional systems stratigraphic architecture and basins chrono-, bio-, chemo-, and sequence stratigraphy Earth history GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Sedimentary rocks are the product of the creation, transport, deposition, and diagenesis of detritus and solutes derived from pre-existing rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are the product of the creation, transport, deposition, and diagenesis of detritus and solutes derived from pre-existing rocks.

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Sedimentary Rocks Detrital/Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks conglomerates & breccias sandstones mudstones Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks carbonates Other Sedimentary Rocks evaporites phosphates organic-rich sedimentary rocks cherts volcaniclastic rocks GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Lecture Outline How photosynthesis, warm temperatures & low pressures in shallow water control carbonate distribution How carbonate sediment types is tied to depositional setting How most mud lime mud has a bio-physico-chemical origin Origins of bio-physico-chemical grains:- ooids, intraclasts, pellets, pisoids Separation of bioclastic grains:- foram’s, brach’s, bryozoan, echinoids, red calc’ algae, corals, green calc’ algae, and molluscs by mineralogy & fabric How CCD controls deepwater carbonate ooze distribution How Folk & Dunham’s classifications are used for carbonate sediments How most diagenesis, dolomitization, & cementation of carbonates takes place in near surface & trace elements are used in this determination How Stylolites develop through burial & solution/compaction GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Limestones Form - Where? Shallow Marine –Late Proterozoic to Modern Deep Marine – Rare in Ancient & commoner in Modern Cave Travertine and Spring Tufa – both Ancient & Modern Lakes – Ancient to Modern GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

CO2 - Temperature & Pressure Effect! High temperatures, low pressure & breaking waves favor carbonate precipitation CO2 + 3H2O = HCO3-1 + H3O+1 + H2O = CO3-2 + 2H3O+1 Carbon dioxide solubility decreases in shallow water and with rising in temperature At lower pressure CO2 is released & at higher pressure dissolves HCO3-1 and CO3-2 are less stable at lower pressure but more stable at higher pressure HCO3-1 and CO3-2 have lower concentration in warm waters but higher concentrations in colder waters GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Calcium Carbonate - Solubilty Note calcium carbonate dissociation: CaCO3= Ca+2 + CO3-2 CaCO3 is less soluble in warm waters than cool waters CaCO3 precipitates in warm shallow waters but is increasingly soluble at depth in colder waters CO2 in solution buffers concentration of carbonate ion (CO3-2) Increasing pressure elevates concentrations of HCO3-1 & CO3-2 (products of solubility reaction) in sea water CaCO3 more soluble at higher pressures & with decreasing temperature GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Controls on Carbonate Accumulation Temperature (climate) -Tropics & temperate regions favor carbonate production: true of ancient too! Light – Photosynthesis drives carbonate production Pressure – “CCD” dissolution increases with depth Agitation of waves - Oxygen source & remove CO2 Organic activity - CaCO3 factories nutrient deserts Sea Level – Yield high at SL that constantly changes Sediment masking - Fallacious! GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Limestones – Chemical or Bochemical Distinction between biochemical & physico-chemical blurred by ubiquitous cyanobacteria of biosphere! Shallow sea water is commonly saturated with respect to calcium carbonate Dissolved ions expected to be precipitated as sea water warms, loses CO2 & evaporates Organisms generate shells & skeletons from dissolved ions Metabolism of organisms cause carbonate precipitation GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Biological Carbon Pump Carbon from CO2 incorporated in organisms through photosynthesis, heterotrophy & secretion of shells > 99% of atmospheric CO2 from volcanism removed by biological pump is deposited as calcium carbonate & organic matter 5.3 gigatons of CO2 added to atmosphere a year but only 2.1 gigatons/year remains; the rest is believed sequestered as aragonite & calcite GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Carbonate Mineralogy Aragonite – high temperature mineral Calcite – stable in sea water & near surface crust Low Magnesium Calcite High Magnesium Calcite Imperforate foraminifera Echinoidea Dolomite – stable in sea water & near surface Carbonate mineralogy of oceans changes with time! GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates TROPICS TEMPERATE OCEANS GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Basin Ramp Open Shelf Restricted Shelf GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Basin Open Shelf Rim Restricted Shelf GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Carbonate Components – The Key Interpretation of depositional setting of carbonates is based on Grain types Grain packing or fabric Sedimentary structures Early diagenetic changes Identification of grain types commonly used in subsurface studies of depositional setting because, unlike particles in siliciclastic rocks, carbonate grains generally formed within basin of deposition NB: This rule of thumb doesn’t always apply GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Carbonate Particles Subdivided into micrite (lime mud) & sand-sized grains These grains are separated on basis of shape & internal structure They are subdivided into: skeletal & non-skeletal (bio-physico-chemical grains) GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Lime Mud or Micrite GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Lime Mud or Micrite GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates WHITING LIME MUD ACCUMULATES ON BANK, OFF BANK & TIDAL FLATS GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Three Creeks Tidal Flats GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Lime Mud - Ordovician Kentucky GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Carbonate Bio-physico-chemical Grains Ooids Grapestones and other intraclasts Pellets Pisolites and Oncolites GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Ooids GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Aragonitic Ooids GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates After Scholle, 2003 Aragonitic Ooids GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Calcitic & Aragonitic Ooids Great Salt Lake GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Grapestones GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Grapestones GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Pellets GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Pellets GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates After Scholle GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Skeletal Particles - Mineralogy Calcite commonly containing less than 4 mole % magnesium Some foraminifera, brachiopods, bryozoans, trilobites, ostracodes, calcareous nannoplankton, & tintinnids Magnesian calcite, with 4-20 mole % magnesium Echinoderms, most foraminifera, & red algae Aragonite tests Corals, stromatoporoids, most molluscs, green algae, & blue-green algae. Opaline silica sponge spicules & radiolarians GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Drafted by Waite 99, after James 1984) GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Foraminifera GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates After Scholle Foraminifera GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Brachiopod GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Brachiopods GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Brachiopod GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Bryozoan GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Bryozoan GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Trilobite Remains Ostracod Remains Calcispheres GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Trilobite Carapice GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Crinoid Syntaxial cement GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Red Calcareous Algae GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Surface Water Organic Productivity Marine algae & cyanobacteria base of marine food chain Fed by available nitrogen and phosphorus Supplied in surface waters by deep water upwelling Vertical upwelling drives high biological productivity at: Equator Western continental margins Southern Ocean around Antarctica Produce biogenous oozes GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Deep Water Carbonate Deposits Deep water pelagic sediments accumulate slowly (0.1-1 cm per thousand years) far from land, and include: abyssal clay from continents cover most of deeper ocean floor carried by winds ocean currents Oozes from organisms' bodies; not present on continental margins where rate of supply of terriginous sediment too high & organically derived material less than 30% of sediment GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Carbonate Compensation Depth - CCD Deep-ocean waters undersaturated with calcium carbonate & opalline silica. Biogenic particles dissolve in water column and on sea floor Pronounced for carbonates Calcareous oozes absent below CCD depth CCD varies from ocean to ocean 4,000 m in Atlantic. 500 - 1,500 m in Pacific Siliceous particles dissolve more slowly as sink & not so limited in distribution by depth Nutrient supply controls distribution of siliceous sediments GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates After James, 1984 GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates After James, 1984 GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Carbonate Cement Fabrics Crust or rims coat grains Syntaxial overgrowth – optical continuity with skeletal fabric Echinoid single crystals Brachiopod multiple crystals Blocky equant - final void fill GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Isopachus Marine Cement GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Meniscus Cement GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Evaporation of mixed Waters Influx of Magnesium Rich Continental Ground Waters Influx of sea water 1. Aragonite 2. Gypsum 3. Anhydrite 4. Dolomite 5. Halite accumulate in this order GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Stylolites Two-dimensional cross-sectonal views of Dissolution seam(A), Stylolite (B), Highly serrate stylolite (C) Deformed stylolite (D). A few grains are shown schematically to emphasize the change in scale from the previous figure (after Bruce Railsback) GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Stylolites Intergranular contacts as seen in thin section Tangential (A) flattened (B) concavo-convex (C) sutured (D) (after Bruce Railsback) GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Stylolites After Bruce Railsback GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Stylolites After Bruce Railsback

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Lecture Conclusions Photosynthesis, warm temperatures & low pressures in shallow water control carbonate distribution Carbonate sediment types indicate depositional setting Most mud lime mud has a bio-physico-chemical origin Ooid, intraclast, pellet, and pisoid grains have bio-physico-chemical origin Mineralogy & fabric separate foram’s, brach’s, bryozoan, echinoids, red calc’ algae, corals, green calc’ algae, and molluscan skeleletal grains CCD controls deepwater ooze distribution Folk & Dunham are best way to classify carbonates Most diagenesis, dolomitization, & cementation of carbonates takes place in near surface crust & trace elements can be used in this determination Stylolites develop through burial & solution/compaction GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

End of the Lecture Lets go for lunch!!!

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Global Climate Cycles Global climatic cycles, referenced to geologic periods (yellow), megasequences (light purple), sea level cycles (blue), & volcanic output (dark purple). (Redrawn & modified L. Waite, 2002 after Fischer, 1984) GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Phanerozoic Global Climate History Frakes et al. (1992) have alternating cold & warm states ("cool" & "warm" modes) at comparable time scales to Fischer (1984) cycles but propose older portion of Mesozoic greenhouse (Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous) has a cool climate, & presence of seasonal ice at higher latitudes (after L. Waite, 2002) GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Copied from Steven Wojtal of Oberlin College GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

CO2 - Temperature & Pressure Effect! Carbonate precipitation favored by high temperatures, low pressure and breaking waves. Solubility of carbon dioxide increases with depth and drops in temperature CO2 + 3H2O = HCO3-1 + H3O+1 + H2O = CO3-2 + 2H3O+1 At higher pressure CO2 dissolves & is released at lower pressures HCO3-1 and CO3-2 are more stable at higher pressures but less stable at lower pressures HCO3-1 and CO3-2 reach higher concentrations in colder waters but lower concentration at warm waters GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Copied from Steven Wojtal of Oberlin College GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

Calcium Carbonate - Solubilty Note behavior of calcium carbonate: CaCO3= Ca+2 Concentration of carbonate ion (CO3-2) is buffered by amount of CO2 in solution Increasing pressure elevates concentrations of HCO3-1 & CO3-2 (products of solubility reaction) in sea water CaCO3 is more soluble at higher pressures Similar effect occurs with decreasing temperature CaCO3 is more soluble in cool waters than warm waters CaCO3 is increasingly soluble at depth in colder waters but precipitates in warm shallow waters GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Copied from Steven Wojtal of Oberlin College GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Copied from Suzanne O'Connell Wesleyan College GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates Copied from Suzanne O'Connell Wesleyan College GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates

GEOL 325 Lecture 4: Carbonates