The American Ghetto Drawn from Kaplan, Wheeler & Holloway, Chapter 10

Ethnic & Racial Issues in Urban Studies Ethnic issues are fundamental to urban studies Ethnic issues are fundamental to urban studies a thorough review of history, economics, and politics reveals the misguided nature of most commonplace perspectives on ethnic or race relations a thorough review of history, economics, and politics reveals the misguided nature of most commonplace perspectives on ethnic or race relations if the purpose is to address problems rather than wishing them away or trying to avoid responsibility, then it becomes essential to understand racial and ethnic relations if the purpose is to address problems rather than wishing them away or trying to avoid responsibility, then it becomes essential to understand racial and ethnic relations

Ethnicity & Race Race Race –biological categories –“caucasoid,” “mongoloid,” “negroid” –no longer accepted as scientifically meaningful Ethnicity Ethnicity –social categories –imposed from “inside” and “outside” group –defined by shared linguistic background or kinship –often has religious and cultural dimensions

Ethnicity & Race What kind of category is “Black” What kind of category is “Black” –racial (binary, no named gradations) What kind of category is “Hispanic” What kind of category is “Hispanic” –ethnic (based on ancestral language) –separated from race in the census –recognized from both inside and outside the group in question –fluid, people can stop identifying with it What kind of category is “Asian” What kind of category is “Asian” –racial & ethnic (label imposed from outside the groups in question)

Segregation in descriptive terms (from Massey & Denton) Evenness Evenness –consistency of majority- minority ratio across city (measured by dissimilarity index) Exposure/isolation Exposure/isolation –typical composition of neighborhoods where minorities live (measured by isolation index) Centralization Centralization –proximity of minority to center of city Clustering Clustering –proximity of minority neighborhoods to other neighborhoods dominated by the same minority Concentration Concentration –pop. density of areas where minorities live In combination, these create “hypersegregation” (an extreme challenge for minorities) In combination, these create “hypersegregation” (an extreme challenge for minorities)

Segregation: dissimilarity & isolation Review: two different ways of measuring segregation Review: two different ways of measuring segregation –index of dissimilarity the percent of a minority population in a city that would have to move in order to even out the ratio of the minority to the majority across the entire city the percent of a minority population in a city that would have to move in order to even out the ratio of the minority to the majority across the entire city 0% to 100% 0% to 100% –index of isolation the likelihood a member of a minority group will encounter a member of that minority when interacting in his or her neighborhood the likelihood a member of a minority group will encounter a member of that minority when interacting in his or her neighborhood 0% to 100% 0% to 100%

Segregation Black-white segregation still very high Black-white segregation still very high decline since 1970 decline since 1970 dissimilarity index still above 66% in most large US cities dissimilarity index still above 66% in most large US cities –what does this mean? isolation index averages 58% isolation index averages 58% –(even in MSAs where Black population is under 20%) –what does this mean? If this is due to variation in income and the concentration of low-cost housing, is it still a racial issue? If this is due to variation in income and the concentration of low-cost housing, is it still a racial issue? –why or why not?

Levels of segregation Asians least segregated Asians least segregated Hispanics somewhat more segregated Hispanics somewhat more segregated Black populations most segregated Black populations most segregated –19 metropolitan areas in the US qualified as “hypersegregated” for blacks in 1990 –Baltimore, Birmingham, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Gary, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Miami, Milwaukee, New Orleans, New York, Newark, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Washington DC –More than 35% of America’s black population live in hypersegregated places

History of the North American Black Ghetto The Great Migration The Great Migration post WWI ( ) post WWI ( ) –crisis in cotton farming boll weevil boll weevil –labor shortage in Northern cities war disrupted migration flows into N. Amer. war disrupted migration flows into N. Amer. black workers kept industrial economy running black workers kept industrial economy running –black population of Chicago, for example, more than doubled between 1910 and 1920 –formal (institutional) and informal segregation was imposed on these newcomers

Early 20 th c. “1 st ghetto” racial persecution in residential contact zones racial persecution in residential contact zones –stone-throwing –fire-bombing –physical assault “Neighborhood improvement associations” (resisted racial change with various tools) “Neighborhood improvement associations” (resisted racial change with various tools) –money –pressure tactics –restrictive covenants result was a “dual housing market” and a “color line” result was a “dual housing market” and a “color line”

Post WWII “second ghetto” economics economics –scarcity of affordable housing –government (FHA) support of single-family home ownership institutionalized discrimination institutionalized discrimination –red-lining & other forms of lending and real-estate discrimination preference (whose?) preference (whose?) –surveys show blacks prefer integrated neighborhoods while some whites (very prejudiced ones) will flee from even small levels of integration –this increases ethnic concentration of the neighborhood until it passes the threshold of the less prejudiced whites, etc. –neighborhood soon reaches “tipping point”

1960s Civil Rights Movement Civil Rights Movement –nonviolent direct action confronted Jim Crow in the South –lunch counters, interstate buses, city buses, swimming pools, waiting rooms, etc. Structural (economic) foundations of discrimination were left intact Structural (economic) foundations of discrimination were left intact –Automation, deindustrialization, social polarization –Urban Riots ( ) –Kerner Commission (1968)

Urban Poverty end of WWII less than 1/3 of the US’s poor lived in cities end of WWII less than 1/3 of the US’s poor lived in cities end of 20 th c., more than 1/2 of US’s poor lived in cities end of 20 th c., more than 1/2 of US’s poor lived in cities number of high-poverty urban neighborhoods tripled , as well as the number of people living in these places number of high-poverty urban neighborhoods tripled , as well as the number of people living in these places social isolation and spatial isolation interact, to make advancement by minorities even more difficult social isolation and spatial isolation interact, to make advancement by minorities even more difficult

Ways of understanding the problem Oscar Lewis: “culture of poverty” the survival strategies of the poor form a culture with values which are essentially fixed and block future upward mobility Oscar Lewis: “culture of poverty” the survival strategies of the poor form a culture with values which are essentially fixed and block future upward mobility William Julius Wilson: the culture of the “urban underclass” is not fixed but reflects economic realities of the present and the adaptive intelligence of people William Julius Wilson: the culture of the “urban underclass” is not fixed but reflects economic realities of the present and the adaptive intelligence of people Massey & Denton: the problem lies in segregation and housing discrimination, “culture of segregation” because the environment acts on people in many ways such as imprinting a particular dialect Massey & Denton: the problem lies in segregation and housing discrimination, “culture of segregation” because the environment acts on people in many ways such as imprinting a particular dialect Paul Jargowsky: the cause of urban poverty varies from town to town, and from region to region Paul Jargowsky: the cause of urban poverty varies from town to town, and from region to region

William J. Wilson The Truly Disadvantaged peer effects peer effects –has been proven to be limited in impact social control social control –nature of role models and supervision opportunities and resources opportunities and resources –spatial mismatch in job market –variable impacts institutions institutions –public services, police & fire protection, schools

Kaplan, Wheeler & Holloway “…all individuals are responsible for the choices they make. Even so, not all individuals have the same choices … the differences in choices that people face are related to structure of society and the economy. At one level, there is much merit to the observation that market economies in a capitalist economy require some degree of poverty--the system will not continue to function if there is not a group of poor people who are useful to discipline the working class. The question then becomes who are the poor, and when and where will their poverty be imposed? Within this framework, people still have choices, and they bear some moral responsibility for those choices. The choices, however, may not include leaving poverty.” (p.263) “…all individuals are responsible for the choices they make. Even so, not all individuals have the same choices … the differences in choices that people face are related to structure of society and the economy. At one level, there is much merit to the observation that market economies in a capitalist economy require some degree of poverty--the system will not continue to function if there is not a group of poor people who are useful to discipline the working class. The question then becomes who are the poor, and when and where will their poverty be imposed? Within this framework, people still have choices, and they bear some moral responsibility for those choices. The choices, however, may not include leaving poverty.” (p.263)

Responses to urban poverty LBJ: War on Poverty LBJ: War on Poverty –Head Start, Job Corps, Upward Bound, food stamps, direct subsidies to community groups, Model Cities program (victim of dilution through Congressional greed) Nixon: Fiscal retrenchment Nixon: Fiscal retrenchment –new federalism, CDBG Reagan: further retrenchment Reagan: further retrenchment –blaming the poor (welfare moms & so forth) –blaming economic redistribution for rewarding laziness and bad decision-making Clinton: welfare reform Clinton: welfare reform –work requirements & time limits on means-tested assistance

Enterprise Zones Similar idea, two approaches Similar idea, two approaches –revitalize blighted urban areas by spurring business growth in those areas –Democratic approach: Economic Development Act (1965) provided investment capital and infrastructure improvement grants –Republican approach: Enterprise Zone plan (1980s) cut corporate taxes and removed regulations governing pollution and labor relations in certain areas –Clinton’s approach fell between the two & added community development banks

Limits to Enterprise Zones economic roots of “blight” are very widespread economic roots of “blight” are very widespread –industrial employment has gone overseas –retail employment has gone to the suburbs (malls) –service employment has followed the centripetal flow out from the CBD to suburbs –local consumers are short on cash –non-local consumers will go to more attractive shopping areas gentrification is the only “hope,” but it cannot solve the human side of the problem gentrification is the only “hope,” but it cannot solve the human side of the problem –can only occur in certain kinds of areas –usually replaces the poor rather than enriching them

WRAPPING UP The association between ethnicity and poverty is rooted in US history The association between ethnicity and poverty is rooted in US history A place where minority status and poverty come together is called a ghetto A place where minority status and poverty come together is called a ghetto The personal responsibility “explanation” of the ghetto arises from an ahistorical view of society The personal responsibility “explanation” of the ghetto arises from an ahistorical view of society The ghetto was created by the dominant society: it demanded low-wage workers and persecuted them for being poor and needing a place to live The ghetto was created by the dominant society: it demanded low-wage workers and persecuted them for being poor and needing a place to live Ghettos recreate poverty through various means Ghettos recreate poverty through various means Efforts to solve the problem of the ghetto have been plagued by a pattern of avoidance, denial, and greed Efforts to solve the problem of the ghetto have been plagued by a pattern of avoidance, denial, and greed