1 PSY 321 Dr. Sanchez Perceiving People

2 Person Perception The process by which people come to understand one another. The process by which people come to understand one another. Today, we’ll look at: Today, we’ll look at: –Attributions: How we explain and analyze behavior. –Observation: The “raw data” of social perception. –Integration: How we integrate our observations into coherent impressions of other persons. –How our impressions can subtly create a distorted picture of reality.

3 Attribution Theories Attribution theories describe the process by which we make attributions for people’s behavior. Attribution theories describe the process by which we make attributions for people’s behavior. Understanding WHY? Understanding WHY?

4 Understanding WHY  Why did Jack win the prize?  Why did Susie get arrested?  Why was Jason late for his date?  Why did Ross break up with Rachel?

5 What functions do attributions serve?

6 When do we make attributions?

7 Classic Views on Attribution...

8 2 Basic Types of Attributions: Heider (1958)  Internal/Person/Personal/ Dispositional Attributions  e.g., personality, ability, attitude  External/Situational/Stimulus Attributions  e.g., other people, luck, pressure,

9 Understanding WHY  Jack won the prize because he’s smart.  Susie got arrested because she’s aggressive.  Jason was late for his date because he’s not interested.  Pam broke up with Rachel because she’s a jerk.

10 Understanding WHY  Jack won the prize because the competition was easy.  Susie got arrested because she was in the wrong place at the wrong time.  Jason was late for his date because his boss made him work overtime.  Pam broke up with Rachel because she had to move to San Francisco.

11 Jone’s Correspondence Inference Theory People infer from action whether the behavior corresponds to personality traits People infer from action whether the behavior corresponds to personality traits –Is the behavior chosen? –Is the behavior unexpected? –How many possible intended effects of behaviors?

12 Kelley’s Covariation Theory Dispositional or situational causes Dispositional or situational causes –Consensus: How are other people reacting to the same stimulus? –Consistency: Is the person’s behavior consistent over time? –Distinctiveness : Does the person react the same or differently to different stimuli?

13 Kelly’s Covariation Model: Malik Loves “The Hangover 2”  If consistency is low, we do not make a stimulus attribution.  Malik sometimes talks about how great the new movie “ The Hangover” was, but sometimes says he didn’t like it.  If consistency is high, we look for consensus and distinctiveness to help us explain the situation

14 Kelly’s Covariation Model  Given high consistency…...  If the behavior is low on both consensus and distinctiveness, we make an internal attribution  e.g., If no one else raves about “The Hangover,” and Malik raves about many other films, then something about Malik caused the behavior

15 Kelly’s Covariation Model  Given high consistency….  If behavior is high on both consensus and distinctiveness, we make an stimulus attribution  e.g., If everyone raves about the movie “The Hangover,” and Malik rarely raves about other films, then the movie caused the behavior

16 Kelley’s Covariation Theory (High Consistency Theory)

17 Kelly’s Covariation Theory  multiple observational points  process for making external (stimulus), as well as, internal attributions (personal)

18 Cognitive Heuristics Mental shortcuts: Mental shortcuts: –Availability heuristic –Base-rate fallacy: –False-consensus effect: –Counterfactual thinking:

19 Attribution Biases and Errors  Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

20 Fundamental Attribution Error the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people’s behavior is due to internal factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors

Fundamental Attribution Error and the TV Quiz Show

22 Fundamental Attribution Error: Jones & Harris (1967)  Ps read an essay written by a fellow student about Castro  free choice vs. no choice conditions  Ps were asked: What is the writer’s position on Castro?  RESULTS???????

What Does This Speechwriter Really Believe?

Culture and Attribution Language and culture can influence the way people think about… Language and culture can influence the way people think about… Also influences perception of social events Also influences perception of social events

25 FAE & Culture: Miller (1984)  Two groups of various ages:  American participants  Indian participants  Task:  Explain the causes of pos & neg behaviors you’ve seen in your life

26 FAE & Culture: Miller (1984)  Young children of both cultures:  no significant attribution differences  As Ps ages increased:  Americans made more internal attributions  Asian Indians made more external attributions

27 Figure 4.7: Fundamental Attribution Error: A Western Bias? From J.G. Miller (1984) "Culture and the Development of Everyday Social Explanation," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, Copyright (c) 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.

28 Attributions Within Cultural Frames: When you are both American and Asian? From "Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition" by Y. Hong, M. W. Morris, C. Chiu, and V. Benet-Martinez (2000). From American Psychologist,55, Copyright (c) 2000 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

29 Demonstration Time

30 Attribution Biases and Errors  Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)  Actor-Observer Bias

31 Actor-Observer Bias

32 Let’s imagine this….. You are behind someone in a car who is driving very slowly, who looks like s/he’s going to pull over but then does not. “Dang” you say, “This person can’t drive! These ‘old people/women/foreigners/southerners should not be allowed on the road.”

33 Let’s imagine this….. A few days later, you are driving around a suburb a few miles away from your normal stomping grounds, looking for the house of a friend of a friend, who is holding a party. You can’t read the house numbers because there are lots of bushes in the way. You drive slowly so you won’t miss the house. You almost pull over a couple of times, thinking you’ve found the house. You think “why is behind me giving me the finger?” Taken together, these scenarios demonstrate the Actor-Observer Effect

34 Actor-Observer Effect: Dear Abby Dear Abby: I’m writing you in desperation, hoping you can help me with a problem I’m having with my mother. A little over a year ago, I moved in with my boyfriend despite my mother’s protests. She has never liked “Kevin.” I’ll admit he’s far from perfect and we’ve had our problems. He’s an alcoholic, has a bad temper, is mentally abusive, is a compulsive liar and cannot hold a job. I am in debt over my head because of him but my biggest problem is that my mother is obsessed with my situation. I understand her concern, but I can take only so much…. OVER-MOTHERED IN MICHIGAN (i.e., my biggest problem is my mother)

35 Attribution Biases and Errors  Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)  Culture  Actor-Observer Bias  Self-Serving Attribution Biases

36 Self-Serving Attribution Biases

37 Self-Serving Attribution Bias: Lau & Russell (1980)  Examined explanations made by athletes & coaches for why their team won or lost  victories explained in terms of things internal to team (e.g., skills)  losses explained in terms of things external to the team (e.g., weather)

38 Self-Serving Bias & Culture  The self-serving bias is pervasive in the West but much less so in Eastern cultures

39 Where do the Attributional Biases & Errors come from?  Cognitive Roots  perceptual salience

40 Perceptual Salience: Taylor & Fiske (1975)  varied the seating arrangement participants who observed a conversation  faced actor A, faced actor B, or both  who played a more dominant role in the conversation?  Results:  Whichever actor the participant faced was the one the observers judged to be the more dominant member of the dyad

41 Why Are Personal Attributions Automatic? Heider: People see dispositions in behavior because of a perceptual bias. Heider: People see dispositions in behavior because of a perceptual bias. So people attribute events to factors that are perceptually conspicuous or salient. So people attribute events to factors that are perceptually conspicuous or salient.

42 Where do the Attribution Biases & Errors come from?  Cognitive Roots  perceptual salience  cognitive misers –

43 Where do the Attribution Biases & Errors come from?  Cognitive Roots  perceptual salience  cognitive misers – people conserve their limited cognitive resources  Motivational Roots  self-esteem concerns  coherent understanding of the world

44 Figure 4.6: Two-Step Model of the Attribution Process

45 Observation The elements of social perception

46 How are impressions of others influenced by superficial aspects of their appearance?

47 The influence of superficial features First impressions are subtly influenced by a person’s appearance. First impressions are subtly influenced by a person’s appearance. We prejudge people based on facial features. We prejudge people based on facial features. –We read traits from faces. –We judge “baby-faced” adults differently than “mature-faced” adults.

48 Effect of Facial Features on Election Outcomes (Todorov et al., 2005) Participants viewed photos of all pairs of Senate and House of Reps candidates before 2004 elections – for 1 second! Participants viewed photos of all pairs of Senate and House of Reps candidates before 2004 elections – for 1 second! Rated the competence of each candidate Rated the competence of each candidate Competence ratings Competence ratings –predicted winners of 70% of the elections –correlated with margin of victory

49 Baby-facedness Babyfaced people – very large eyes relative to size of face, small nose, small chin – elicit positive feelings Babyfaced people – very large eyes relative to size of face, small nose, small chin – elicit positive feelings WHY?? WHY??

50 Three possible explanations: Three possible explanations: –Genetic programming. –Positive associations of babies. –Physical appearance actually predicts behavior.

51 Observation Superficial features Superficial features –e.g. Babyfacedness Nonverbal behaviors Nonverbal behaviors

52 Silent Language of Nonverbal Behavior Behavioral cues are used to identify a person’s inner states, as well as his or her actions. Behavioral cues are used to identify a person’s inner states, as well as his or her actions. What kinds of nonverbal cues do people use? What kinds of nonverbal cues do people use?

53 Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication- how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words Nonverbal communication- how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words

54 Nonverbal Cues Serve Many Functions 1.) Expressing emotion “I’m angry” - eyes narrow - eyebrows lower - stare intently - mouth set to thin, straight line

55 Nonverbal Cues Serve Many Functions 2.) Conveying attitudes “I like you” - smiles - extended eye contact or “I don’t like you” - averted eyes - flat tone of voice - body turned away

56 Nonverbal Cues Serve Many Functions 3.) Communicating one’s personality traits “I’m outgoing” - broad gestures - changes in inflection when speaking - energetic tone of voice

57 Nonverbal Cues Serve Many Functions 4.) Facilitating verbal communication - to convey “I’m finished talking” - lower voice - look away as you finish a sentence

58 How Good are People at Identifying Emotions in the Face? Insert Figure 4.1: How Good are People at Identifying Emotions in the Face? about here

59 Elfenbein & Ambady (2003)

60 Distinguishing Truth from Deception Freud: “No mortal can keep a secret… betrayal oozes out of him at every pore.” Freud: “No mortal can keep a secret… betrayal oozes out of him at every pore.” Channels of communication differ in terms of ease of control. Channels of communication differ in terms of ease of control. –Face is easy to control, while body is harder.

Distinguishing Truth and Deception

Why Do We Have Difficulty Detecting Deception? Mismatch between the behavioral cues that actually signal deception and the ones used to detect deception. Mismatch between the behavioral cues that actually signal deception and the ones used to detect deception. Four channels of communication provide relevant information: Four channels of communication provide relevant information:

63 Integration From Dispositions to Impressions

64 Information Integration: The Arithmetic How do we combine personal attributions into a single coherent picture of the person? How do we combine personal attributions into a single coherent picture of the person? –Summation model or averaging model? Information Integration Theory: Impressions formed of others are based on: Information Integration Theory: Impressions formed of others are based on:

65 Perceiver Characteristics We differ in the kinds of impressions we form of others. We differ in the kinds of impressions we form of others. Our current, temporary mood can influence the impressions we form of others. Our current, temporary mood can influence the impressions we form of others. Embodiment studies Embodiment studies To some extent, impression formation is in the eye of the beholder. To some extent, impression formation is in the eye of the beholder.

66 Priming Effects The tendency for recently used words to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information. The tendency for recently used words to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information. Motivations, as well as social behaviors, can be influenced by priming. Motivations, as well as social behaviors, can be influenced by priming.

67 Priming Effects Bargh & Chartrand (1999) Participants completed word find puzzles Participants completed word find puzzles IV: Primed with achievement-related words, or not primed IV: Primed with achievement-related words, or not primed DV: How long they worked on the puzzles when the experimenter told them to stop DV: How long they worked on the puzzles when the experimenter told them to stop

68 Bargh & Chartrand (1999)

69 Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996)

Trait Characteristics: Universal Dimensions of Social Cognition

Target Characteristics All traits are not created equal. All traits are not created equal. Whether a trait is considered good or bad affects its impact on our impressions. Whether a trait is considered good or bad affects its impact on our impressions. –Trait Negativity Bias

72 Implicit Personality Theories Implicit Personality Theory: A network of assumptions that we make about the relationships among traits and behaviors. Implicit Personality Theory: A network of assumptions that we make about the relationships among traits and behaviors. Central Traits: Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions. Central Traits: Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions.

73 Asch (1946) Is this person generous? Warm Condition Warm Condition  Intelligent  Skillful  Industrious  Warm  Determined  Practical  Cautious  Generous? 91% Cold Condition Cold Condition  Intelligent  Skillful  Industrious  Cold  Determined  Practical  Cautious  Generous? 9%

74 The Primacy Effect The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later. The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later.

Asch (1946) Intelligent Intelligent Industrious Industrious Impulsive Impulsive Critical Critical Stubborn Stubborn Envious Envious Stubborn Stubborn Critical Critical Impulsive Impulsive Industrious Industrious Intelligent Intelligent One group read this description:Other group read this description: 4-75

76 Primacy Effect: Explanation #1 Once we think we have formed an accurate impression of someone, we pay less attention to subsequent information. Once we think we have formed an accurate impression of someone, we pay less attention to subsequent information. People differ in their need for closure. People differ in their need for closure.

77 Primacy Effect: Explanation #2 Change of Meaning Hypothesis Change of Meaning Hypothesis –Once we have formed an impression, we start to interpret inconsistent information in light of that impression.

78 Confirmation Biases From Impressions to Reality

Confirmation Bias Once we make up our mind about something, how likely are we to change it, even when confronted with new evidence? Once we make up our mind about something, how likely are we to change it, even when confronted with new evidence? Confirmation Bias: Our tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs. Confirmation Bias: Our tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs.

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as a Three-Step Process

81 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) Teachers were told that, on the basis of an IQ test, a certain group of students was on the verge of an intellectual spurt Teachers were told that, on the basis of an IQ test, a certain group of students was on the verge of an intellectual spurt

82 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) Teachers were told that, on the basis of an IQ test, a certain group of students was on the verge of an intellectual spurt This group of students was randomly chosen Test was bogus

83 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) 8 months later, this group of students actually outperformed others on an IQ test 8 months later, this group of students actually outperformed others on an IQ test

84 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) Teacher forms initial impression – based on reputation, appearance, initial performance, etc. Teacher forms initial impression – based on reputation, appearance, initial performance, etc. Teacher adjusts behavior in ways that encourage this behavior Teacher adjusts behavior in ways that encourage this behavior –more praise, attention, challenges for “good” students; –less for “bad” students