Spices of the World An Overview

Spices Drove Exploration Major voyages of exploration in search of spices Pepper and Clove High demand in Europe Very valuable commodity Find and control source Columbus voyage was to find a better route to Asia Vasco da Gama’s circum navigation of Africa to Malabar coast of India in 1498 was major reason Portugal sent him, at that time the coast of Malabar produced 2/3 of pepper supply Price of pepper was set at 11.5 g of gold per quintal (100 kg)

Spices Important in World Trade 75% of World Trade Pepper Capsicums Cinnamon Ginger Turmeric

Percent of World Trade for Important Spices Pepper 33% Capsicum 22% Seed spices 15% Tree spices 14% Turmeric 8% Ginger 6% Cardamon 4% Vanilla 2% Weiss, 2002 Tree spices – clove, nutmeg, cinnamon Weiss. 2002. Spice Crops. CABI Publishing

Tropical Spices imported in the USA USA imports Producing countries Cardamon 3,200 Guatemala, India Chilli 54,000 India, Morocco, Sri Lanka, Tanzania Cinnamon 19,500 Madagascar, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Seychelles Clove 1,200 Indonesia, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Tanzania Cumin 7,200 India Ginger 14,000 India (91,000 to Japan)

Tropical Spices imported (tonnes) in the USA (Weiss, 2002) Spice USA imports Producing countries Mace 200 Indonesia, Grenada, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia Nutmeg 1,500 Pepper 42,500 Brazil, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Sri Lanka Tumeric 2,300 India Vanilla 1,900 Madagascar

FAO Production Statistics (FAOSTAT, 2000-2004) 1,000s MT % of World Production World Africa Asia Latin America Oceania Clove 118 26% 74% <1% Cinnamon 121 1% 98% Pepper 344 3% 79% 17% Nutmeg 74 70% 28% Vanilla 6.5 45% 49%

Origin of Spices Vanilla Pepper Cinnamon Clove Nutmeg Clove, S. aromaticum and species, center of origin is Papau New Guinea, Arab traders brought nutmeg to Europe from Moluccas via India, kept origin secret to avoid competition, in 1300 AD Arab Kazawini revealed origin, well known in Europe by 12th century, 1498 Vasco da Gama reached west coast of India in search of the spice islands, by 1512 the Portuguese found the Moluccas and they dominated the nutmeg trade for the next century, replaced by the Dutch in early 17th century who dominated trade for next 200 years, they restricted production by destroying all tress every where except for the islands of Banda and Amboina, when found on island of Run an English island they traded it fro Mahattan island, birds who ate fruit also spread the seed to other islands, in their monopoly, they restricted supply to maintain high prices In mid 1700s the French obtained 32 trees and established 5 of these in their islands (Mauritius, Ile de France, Reunion Island, Seychelles and began to harvest in 1778 in 1818 introduced into Zanibar During British occupation of Moluccas (1796-1802), sent to Penang and other countries under British control Weiss, 2002

Spice Origin Habitat Clove Cinnamon Pepper Nutmeg Vanilla Moluccas (Indonesia) Evergreen tree, tropical maritime climate Cinnamon Sri Lanka, India, SE Asia Tree of the wet tropics Pepper Hills of western India Tropical woody vines, wet tropics Nutmeg Papua New Guinea Evergreen trees, tropical lowland, dioecious Vanilla Mexico Fleshy herbaecous vine, hot, moist climate

Clove - Syzygium aromaticum Evergreen tree Up to 15 m Glossy green leaves Fragrant red flowers Purple fruit Harvest Inflorescence Buds at full size but before they open Leaves Leaf oil Zanzibar, July-September and Nov-January are flowering seasons Madagascar July-August, India Sept-Oct Cloves grown either for cloves as a spice or for leaves but since the cultural practices are different one tree is not grown for both reasons

Clove Branch

Clove Branch and Flower

Adaptation Lower montane forests Partial shade Below 300 m Precipiation: 2,000 to 3,600 mm Dry season needed for best production Flower bud initiation High humidity at flowering reduce yields 3 month dry season (60-80 mm) for better quality

Early Trade and Use Chinese, 200-206 BC India, 2nd century AD From Philippines India, 2nd century AD Egypt, 1st century AD Regular imports by 2nd century 4th century, traded around the Mediterranean 13th century Major source for Europe was Venice Via Alexandria supplied by Arab sailors Source of cloves was unknown in Europe until the voyages of Marco Polo and publication of these in 1298 AD. This lead to the beginning of the Spanish and Portuguese searches for the Spice Islands (Moluccas) Took Vasco de Gama to India in 1498 and within 20 years to the Moluccas

Origin of Clove China 220 BC Arabs 1512 Portuguese Clove 1600s Dutch Mid 1700s French 1796 British Clove Clove, Syzygium aromaticum and species, center of origin of species group is Papau New Guinea, True clove native to 5 small islands of the Moluccas (east of Papau New Guinea), Bachain, Machain, Mutir, Ternate, Tidore Arab traders brought nutmeg to Europe from Moluccas via India, kept origin secret to avoid competition, in 1300 AD Arab Kazawini revealed origin, well known in Europe by 12th century, 1498 Vasco da Gama reached west coast of India in search of the spice islands, by 1512 the Portuguese found the Moluccas and they dominated the nutmeg trade for the next century, replaced by the Dutch in early 17th century who dominated trade for next 200 years, they restricted production by destroying all tress every where except for the islands of Banda and Amboina, when found on island of Run an English island they traded it fro Mahattan island, birds who ate fruit also spread the seed to other islands, in their monopoly, they restricted supply to maintain high prices In mid 1700s the French obtained 32 trees and established 5 of these in their islands (Mauritius, Ile de France, Reunion Island, Seychelles and began to harvest in 1778 in 1818 introduced into Zanibar During British occupation of Moluccas (1796-1802), sent to Penang and other countries under British control Weiss, 2002

Trade Arabs – traded with Europe Portuguese – 1512 found Moluccas Dutch – early 1600s French – Mauritius, Ile de France, Reunion Island, Seychelles Introduced to Zanzibar in 1818 British Occupation of Moluccas (1796-1802) Penang and other British colonies Arab traders brought nutmeg to Europe from Moluccas via India, kept origin secret to avoid competition, in 1300 AD Arab Kazawini revealed origin, well known in Europe by 12th century, 1498 Vasco da Gama reached west coast of India in search of the spice islands, by 1512 the Portuguese found the Moluccas and they dominated the nutmeg trade for the next century, replaced by the Dutch in early 17th century who dominated trade for next 200 years, they restricted production by destroying all tress every where except for the islands of Banda and Amboina, when found on island of Run an English island they traded it fro Mahattan island, birds who ate fruit also spread the seed to other islands, in their monopoly, they restricted supply to maintain high prices In mid 1700s the French obtained 32 trees and established 5 of these in their islands (Mauritius, Ile de France, Reunion Island, Seychelles and began to harvest in 1778 in 1818 introduced into Zanibar During British occupation of Moluccas (1796-1802), sent to Penang and other countries under British control Weiss, 2002

Recent Production History of Clove Zanzibar, now part of Tanzania, was for a long time the world’s largest exporter of cloves Production slumped after revolution of 1964 – Plantations split to small 1.5 ha plots Government paid 4% of export price to growers – probably lots of smuggling Production slumped to 1,000 mt (official w/o smuggling) Production increased in Indonesia and Madagascar In 1997, market manipulations (Pres. Suharto’s son) caused a market collapse and now Indonesian govet has program to replace clove acreage with coffee, vanilla, and food crops Internal market in Indonesia is at 80,000 mt! Mainly used for kretek (crackling) cigarettes whose production in 2000 was 225 billion units Zanzibar (part of Tanzania) Largest exporter until revolution of 1964 Plantations split Government prices very low (4%) Production Pre 1960s – 20,000 mt Fell to less than 1,000 mt (smuggling common) 1998 has increased to 9,000 mt Indonesia 1952 – 3,000 mt, 1962 – 7,000 mt, 1972 – 15,000 mt, 1982 – 25,000 mt, 1997 – 110,000 mt Madagascar 1968 – 6000 mt, 1998 15,000 mt Other new producers are Brazil and Sri Lanka but given current surplus of cloves both are unlikely to expand much beyond domestic demand

Propagation Traditional from seed New plantations need Seed orchards from selected trees Nursery production – 12 months Transplant to field 1-2 seedling per space 8-9 m for clove production 1 m in row to create hedge for leaf harvest New plantations need Windbreaks Shade Beginning with clonal but not common, can do via in vitro propagation Clove is outcrossing so seedling variation can be a problem if seed taken from normal orchard Seedling variation is minimized by the narrow genetic base of clove popualtion in Zanzibar etc. Branches tend to be brittle Grow best with some shade – especially important in establishment stage

Harvest Production Varies tremendously from year to year Begins to bear 4-5 years Full production at 20 years Bear for 100 years Varies tremendously from year to year Average 4-5 kg/tree (0-50 kg/tree) Climatic conditions Shoot and flower initiation Fruit set Variation in yield is not well understood Long term avaerage is probably 4-5 kg/tree but with an orchard it can vary from 5 to 50 kg per tree, This could be in part due to genetic variability of trees within orchard

Harvest Clove clusters Buds full size Calyx base pink flush Do not ripen uniformly 5-8 hand harvests per tree 25-55 kg of wet cloves per day Zanzibar 2 flowering seasons but other places only one Bud initials visible 6 months before harvest

Commercial leaf oil production Hedge row planting Only in Madagascar Yield 2-3 mt leaves/ha Picked every 2-3 weeks Harvest from clove orchards Cut foliage off and strip off leaves Top to encourage branching Lower clove yields Collect fallen leaves every 2-3 weeks

Processing Cloves Leaves Buds separated from peduncles and pedicels Dried Leaves Oil extracted via steam destillation Stems = peduncles and pedicels, these are dried and sold as inferior spice or distilled

Uses Cloves Domestic cooking – whole cloves Pies, stews, soups, ham, pork Industrial food processing – powder Baked goods, proceesed meats, pickles Cigarettes Indonesian Kretek cigarettes up to 8%

Uses – Oil Main component is Eugenol Sources Bud, stem, leaf Bud is highest quality Uses Seasonings and processed food (bud only) Perfumery Some in pharmaceutical and dental products Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and insecticidal activity Stem oil used mainly to adulterate other types of oil Leaf oil used mainly for eugenol production and its by product caryophyllene Rectified oil is used in less expensive perfumes, soaps, and similar products, generally not used in food flavorings as it has a harsher flavor that is generally not acceptable

Pepper Piperaceae Piper nigrum

Pepper Perennial glabrous woody climber Can climb up to 10m sometimes longer Variable in appearance Virtually dioecious in the wild but commercial cultivars are generally hermaphroditic

Piperaceae Piper species Peperomia and 10 other genera nigrum, Black/white pepper Most important cubeba, Cubeb pepper longum, Long pepper Peperomia and 10 other genera

Origin of Pepper Pepper Native to hills of western India Pepper very important – significant factor influencing world exploration and history – to find source and control its trade Known by Greeks by about 300 BC Well established item of commerce during the Roman empire (27 BC – 395 AD) Widespread cultivation/trade of pepper dates back to at least 500 AD – Chinese trade well established by 1280 when Marco Polo described pepper cultivation in Java in his Description of the World Shipped to Red Sea ports by Arabs using the Arabian seas monsoons, then to Alexandria By Middle ages, pepper was very imp. To season/preserve meats, over come odor of rancid food Portugal’s desire to control pepper trade lead to Vasco de Gama circumnavigation of Africa – gained control of the region and the spice trade to the detriment of Venice, Genoa, and Alexandria - 1498 Early in 17th century, Dutch sailed to Indonesia and acquired pepper producing regions in Java and Sumatra, dominated much of the trade 1797, US ships began to trade with Sumatra Early in 19th century, British organized pepper plantings in Malaysia and Sarawak which became major producers

Native to Wet Tropical Forests Commercial Production 20º of the equator Temperature 25-35 C Minimum 15-18 C Rain, well distributed and humid 2,000 to 3,000 If dry season, while berries maturing Cloudy, partial but not heavy shade Soil, well drained and slightly acid to neutral Lots of local varieties Most commercial plantations have are 1,500 m or lower but there are excellent at 2,000 but not above 2,500 m Rain 2-3,000 but also yp to 4,500 mm tloerated if excellent drainage Warm cloudy humid conditions – 25-35 C, 65-95% RH Long periods of strong sunlight can be damaginglow temperature (15-18C) affect reproductive growth more than vegetative, Very hot dry winds inhibit growth, may kill young plants, adversely affects pollination

Propagation Stem cuttings, 4-5 months in the nursery

Planting and pruning Planted with a support (3m x 3m) Pruning Living or dead, 4-9 m in height Tie 3 climbing vines to support Pruning Repeated head back to cause branching Every 10 nodes prune back 7-8 prunings to top of support Maximize # of fruiting branches Flower spikes develop in a leaf axil so want to maximize the number of leaves First 2 years, flower spikes are removed

Harvest First harvest Harvest over 3-4 months 18-20 months after planting Flower to harvest, 4-10 months Harvest over 3-4 months White pepper, 1-3 berries ripe Black pepper, berries still green Harvest every 2-3 weeks Time to ripen crop varies with location Sri Lanks 7-10 months and India 4-5 months and probably the differences in the local varieties used

Yields Well managed orchard in Sarawak 1st picking, 8,000 to 9,000 kg/ha 6th – 10th picking, 18,000 kg/ha Small farmers – primary producers India: 900 - 1,000 kg/ha Sri Lanka: 1,350 - 2,500 kg/ha Brazil: 600 – 4,000 kg/ha Generally any improvement in culture in small farms increases yield

Processing - Two Products Black pepper Mature but green Spikes, hours to begin fermentation Stripped off, dried to 12% moisture White pepper (less pungent, mellow) Ripe and red Berries stripped, in bags in running water Softened pericarp is removed, washed Buff colored berries dried Black pepper, harvested spikes are left in heaps to allo a little fermentation, this browns the berries Then strip from spikes and put on mats for drying adn turned regularly to allow even drying and avoid fungal problems, also solar powered driers From 100 kg of green pepper the yield is about 35 kg of dried black pepper White pepper, ripe berries are soaked in clean running water for up to 14 days, softens and loosens pericarp, bags then placed in tank of water and trampled slowly slowly but firmly to remove any adhering pericarp and pulp, bags put back into running water to finish washing, 100kg ripe berries yiels 25 kg of white pepper, discarded hulls can beused for pepper oil extraction Also produce a berry oil and oleoresin – but berry is most important

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