1957 – The Year the Space Age Began Roger L. Easton, retired Naval Research Laboratory Linda Hall Library Kansas City MO 6 September 2007

Conditions in 1957 Much different from now, slower, more optimistic in some ways Much different from now, slower, more optimistic in some ways Simpler, yet very frightening, time Simpler, yet very frightening, time

1957 in Politics January 20: Second Presidential Inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower January 20: Second Presidential Inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower

1957 in Toys First “Frisbee” from Wham-O First “Frisbee” from Wham-O

1957 in Sports Third Year of Major League Baseball in Kansas City Third Year of Major League Baseball in Kansas City the “Athletics,” not the “Royals” the “Athletics,” not the “Royals”

1957 in Sports No pro football in Kansas City No pro football in Kansas City AFL was three years in future AFL was three years in future no Chiefs until 1963 no Chiefs until 1963

1957 at Home No microwave ovens No microwave ovens (TV dinners since 1954) (TV dinners since 1954) Few color television sets Few color television sets (first broadcasts late in 1953) (first broadcasts late in 1953) No postal Zip Codes No postal Zip Codes Circular phone diales Circular phone diales No cell phones No cell phones (heck, no Area Codes, no direct long-distance dialing!) (heck, no Area Codes, no direct long-distance dialing!) No I nternet, no personal computers No I nternet, no personal computers Music recorded on vinyl discs, not compact or computer disks Music recorded on vinyl discs, not compact or computer disks

1957 in Transportation Gas cost 27 ¢ per gallon Gas cost 27 ¢ per gallon September 4: Introduction of the Edsel by Ford Motor Company September 4: Introduction of the Edsel by Ford Motor Company cancelled in 1959 after loss of $250M cancelled in 1959 after loss of $250M

1957 in Transportation October 28: rollout of first production Boeing 707 October 28: rollout of first production Boeing 707

1957 in Science I nternational Geophysical Year ( I GY) I nternational Geophysical Year ( I GY) (actually, “year and a half”) (actually, “year and a half”)

I GY Accomplishments South Polar Stations established South Polar Stations established Operation Deep Freeze Operation Deep Freeze Discovery of mid-ocean submarine ridges Discovery of mid-ocean submarine ridges evidence of plate tectonics evidence of plate tectonics USSR and USA pledged to launch artificial satellites (“man-made moons”) USSR and USA pledged to launch artificial satellites (“man-made moons”) discovery of Van Allen radiation belts discovery of Van Allen radiation belts

1957: “First” Year of Space Age Space Age arguably began in 1955 Space Age arguably began in 1955 President Eisenhower announced that USA would launch small unmanned earth-orbiting satellite as part of I GY President Eisenhower announced that USA would launch small unmanned earth-orbiting satellite as part of I GY Project Vanguard Project Vanguard

Our Story: The battle to determine who would launch the first artificial satellite: The battle to determine who would launch the first artificial satellite: Werner von Braun of the U.S. Army Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville AL Werner von Braun of the U.S. Army Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville AL Milton Rosen of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC Milton Rosen of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC

Rockets in WW II German V-2 Missiles attacked London German V-2 Missiles attacked London German missile experts brought to USA for Operation “Paperclip” German missile experts brought to USA for Operation “Paperclip” Best known was Dr. Werner Von Braun Best known was Dr. Werner Von Braun

Post WW II Rocket Experiments Milton Rosen used V-2s as launch vehicles for scientific experiments Milton Rosen used V-2s as launch vehicles for scientific experiments Needed more performance Needed more performance Proposed improved vehicle Proposed improved vehicle led to Viking Rocket led to Viking Rocket

Viking Rocket 1949, built for NRL by Glenn L. Martin Co. 1949, built for NRL by Glenn L. Martin Co. I mportant innovations in Viking: I mportant innovations in Viking: gimbaled rocket motor for steering gimbaled rocket motor for steering aluminum as principal structural material aluminum as principal structural material intermittent gas jets for stabilizing vehicle after the main power cutoff intermittent gas jets for stabilizing vehicle after the main power cutoff Launches Launches Viking No. 1, spring 1949, 50-mile altitude Viking No. 1, spring 1949, 50-mile altitude Viking No. 4, May 1950 from ship, 104 miles Viking No. 4, May 1950 from ship, 104 miles

Scientific Results from Viking NRL Electron Optics Branch NRL Electron Optics Branch ion chambers and photon counters to measure radiation from sun at x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths ion chambers and photon counters to measure radiation from sun at x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths Single-Axis Phase-Comparison Angle-Tracking Unit Single-Axis Phase-Comparison Angle-Tracking Unit antecedent of Minitrack antecedent of Minitrack Continuous tracking of small instrumented body in space Continuous tracking of small instrumented body in space Viking 10, April 1954, 136 miles, measured ion composition Viking 10, April 1954, 136 miles, measured ion composition Viking 11, May 1954, altitude of 158 miles radio Viking 11, May 1954, altitude of 158 miles radio

Viking Results Five years of successes Five years of successes Total cost less than $6 million Total cost less than $6 million Encouraged NRL to propose a more powerful rocket engine and added upper stages to build vehicle capable of launching an artificial earth satellite Encouraged NRL to propose a more powerful rocket engine and added upper stages to build vehicle capable of launching an artificial earth satellite

Project Vanguard Grew out of NRL Proposal Grew out of NRL Proposal Led by Dr. John P. Hagen Led by Dr. John P. Hagen

Vanguard Launcher & Satellite Efficient Three-stage launch vehicle Efficient Three-stage launch vehicle Stage 1: based on Viking Stage 1: based on Viking Stage 2: based on Aerobee Sounding Rocket Stage 2: based on Aerobee Sounding Rocket Stage 3: new solid-fuel rocket Stage 3: new solid-fuel rocket Innovative, Miniaturized Scientific Payload Innovative, Miniaturized Scientific Payload Planned I GY use: measure locations of Pacific islands Planned I GY use: measure locations of Pacific islands

Planned Vanguard Trajectory

Solar Cell Batteries 6 units on sphere 6 units on sphere

Later Vanguard Spacecraft Larger spheres Larger spheres More scientific equipment More scientific equipment

Plan for Tracking Vanguard Satellite Remember, no worldwide tracking stations Remember, no worldwide tracking stations no communication network, not even telephones no communication network, not even telephones Would be difficult to ascertain whether satellite had orbited (hence, Project Moonwatch) Would be difficult to ascertain whether satellite had orbited (hence, Project Moonwatch) Satellite Tracking Program in Project Vanguard: Satellite Tracking Program in Project Vanguard: Minimum Trackable Satellite = Minitrack Minimum Trackable Satellite = Minitrack

Minitrack Antenna Array

Minitrack Station, Blossom Point, MD

Tracking Computer Vanguard Computing Center Vanguard Computing Center in downtown DC I BM 704 “Electronic Data-Processing Machine” I BM 704 “Electronic Data-Processing Machine” Magnetic core memory (not vacuum tubes) 40,000 = 40  10 3 instructions per second fastest 2007 computers 300,000,000,000 = 300  10 9 instructions/second Washington Post, July 10, 1957

Competitor to Vanguard: Project Orbiter Proposal by U.S. Army, led by Werner Von Braun Proposal by U.S. Army, led by Werner Von Braun Believed his project was certain to be chosen Believed his project was certain to be chosen

Advocates for Project Orbiter Dr. Wernher von Braun Dr. Wernher von Braun Fred L. Whipple Fred L. Whipple S. Fred Singer S. Fred Singer Frederick C. Durant III Frederick C. Durant III LCDR George Hoover LCDR George Hoover

Orbiter Satellite & Launcher Launched by Army Redstone IRBM Launched by Army Redstone IRBM range of 200 miles, 55-mile vertical height range of 200 miles, 55-mile vertical height Subsequent boost from 3 Rotating (for stability) clusters of unguided solid-fuelled Loki anti-aircraft rockets Subsequent boost from 3 Rotating (for stability) clusters of unguided solid-fuelled Loki anti-aircraft rockets 2 nd Stage: Bundle of 24 Loki, burns for < 2 sec 2 nd Stage: Bundle of 24 Loki, burns for < 2 sec 3 rd Stage: Bundle of 6 Loki 3 rd Stage: Bundle of 6 Loki 4 th Stage: 1 Loki 4 th Stage: 1 Loki Switched to following Loki stage at intervals of 2.5 seconds (!) Switched to following Loki stage at intervals of 2.5 seconds (!)

Project Orbiter Payload 5-pound, 20-inch diameter sphere 5-pound, 20-inch diameter sphere no radio transmitter no radio transmitter would be tracked by optical telescopes ONLY would be tracked by optical telescopes ONLY difficult, not reliable difficult, not reliable No science – propaganda value only No science – propaganda value only would only be able to say that USA had orbited a spacecraft would only be able to say that USA had orbited a spacecraft

Launch Vehicle: Loki Rockets Unguided, solid-fueled rocket Unguided, solid-fueled rocket Based on German Taifun from WW II Based on German Taifun from WW II Loki failed in antiaircraft role Loki failed in antiaircraft role replaced by Nike-Ajax in September 1955 replaced by Nike-Ajax in September 1955 Loki later used as a sounding rocket Loki later used as a sounding rocket Small payload: 3.2 kg Small payload: 3.2 kg Dimensions: Dimensions: booster: 2.63m long  76mm dia. booster: 2.63m long  76mm dia. payload “dart:” 1.02m long  35mm dia. payload “dart:” 1.02m long  35mm dia.

Booster “Dart” Loki Rocket

Selection by “Stewart Committee” Chaired by Homer Stewart of Jet Propulsion Laboratory Chaired by Homer Stewart of Jet Propulsion Laboratory Eight members to select proposal for funding Eight members to select proposal for funding Vote on August 3, 1955 Vote on August 3, member absent 1 member absent 3 votes for Vanguard 3 votes for Vanguard 2 votes for Orbiter 2 votes for Orbiter 2 other members (“not rocket scientists”) voted with majority 2 other members (“not rocket scientists”) voted with majority Final vote: 5 to 2 Final vote: 5 to 2

Reasons for Decision: Deficiencies of Project Orbiter Very Limited Weight Capacity – 5 lbs. Very Limited Weight Capacity – 5 lbs. Uncertain Optical Detection of Successful Orbit Uncertain Optical Detection of Successful Orbit Untested Launch Vehicle Untested Launch Vehicle Problems had not been fixed (at least, not well enough) Problems had not been fixed (at least, not well enough) Technological world had changed, but von Braun had not Technological world had changed, but von Braun had not

Plusses for Vanguard Launch vehicle based on Viking Launch vehicle based on Viking no interference with research in ballistic missile weaponry no interference with research in ballistic missile weaponry less tied to military vehicle less tied to military vehicle good for propaganda purposes good for propaganda purposes Much better tracking system Much better tracking system Better scientific value Better scientific value I nnovative vehicle and payload I nnovative vehicle and payload also a “minus” ⇒ uncertainty and complexity also a “minus” ⇒ uncertainty and complexity

Second Hearing by Stewart Committee August 15, 1955 (12 days later) August 15, 1955 (12 days later) Army memo had been circulated that criticized NRL satellite program for low probability of success and time required to develop launch vehicle Army memo had been circulated that criticized NRL satellite program for low probability of success and time required to develop launch vehicle I n short, von Braun could not believe he and the Army had lost I n short, von Braun could not believe he and the Army had lost

Project Orbiter Killed September 9, 1955 September 9, 1955 Army forbidden from launching satellites Army forbidden from launching satellites NRL forbidden from soliciting scientific data from military missile programs NRL forbidden from soliciting scientific data from military missile programs Vanguard team could not believe it had won Vanguard team could not believe it had won

Vanguard Launch Sequence

October 4, 1957: News Flash Sputnik successfully launched into orbit

Five Scientific Objectives of Sputnik to test method for orbiting an artificial satellite; to test method for orbiting an artificial satellite; to provide information on density of atmosphere by calculating orbital lifetime; to provide information on density of atmosphere by calculating orbital lifetime; to test radio and optical methods of orbital tracking; to test radio and optical methods of orbital tracking; to determine effects of atmospheric radio wave propagation; and to determine effects of atmospheric radio wave propagation; and to check methods for pressurizing satellite to check methods for pressurizing satellite

Sputnik I Rocket Booster Track as seen in Washington, DC on night of 15 October 1957 Easily visible to unaided eye

Sputnik Radio Transmitters MHz and MHz MHz and MHz NRL converted Minitrack receivers at Blossom Point Tracking Station from 108 MHz in two days NRL converted Minitrack receivers at Blossom Point Tracking Station from 108 MHz in two days New Antennas and Receivers installed New Antennas and Receivers installed Worked well until someone “tidied up” the site Worked well until someone “tidied up” the site

Minitrack System Calibration Opportunity provided by surprise launch of Sputnik Opportunity provided by surprise launch of Sputnik Satellite’s orbit computed using Doppler shifts of radio transmissions Satellite’s orbit computed using Doppler shifts of radio transmissions After orbit established, NRL proposed “illuminating” Sputnik with FM transmitter at Fort Monmouth, NJ After orbit established, NRL proposed “illuminating” Sputnik with FM transmitter at Fort Monmouth, NJ Reflected signal used for calibration Reflected signal used for calibration Led to idea of using “bistatic” radar to track orbiting bodies Led to idea of using “bistatic” radar to track orbiting bodies Naval Space Surveillance System “Fence” Naval Space Surveillance System “Fence”

Navspasur Radar Sites

Reaction to Sputnik Pressure from Press/Public/Politicians for Vanguard to launch Pressure from Press/Public/Politicians for Vanguard to launch Launch of “Test Vehicles” considered point of national pride Launch of “Test Vehicles” considered point of national pride Revived/modified plan from U.S. Army Revived/modified plan from U.S. Army

Test Vehicle 3 (TV-3) December 6, 1957 December 6, 1957 Nationally televised Nationally televised First-stage guidance failed First-stage guidance failed Satellite survived in “working” order Satellite survived in “working” order now in NASM now in NASM TV-3B, 5 February 1958, second stage did not ignite TV-3B, 5 February 1958, second stage did not ignite

Army Backup Plan small spacecraft carried by four- stage Jupiter-C launch vehicle small spacecraft carried by four- stage Jupiter-C launch vehicle based on Jupiter IRBM based on Jupiter IRBM Contained Vanguard electronics package to appear as a scientific experiment Contained Vanguard electronics package to appear as a scientific experiment

Explorer- I Launch, January 31, 1958

Pickering, Van Allen, von Braun

Next Vanguard Attempt March 1958 March 1958 Test-Vehicle 4 (TV-4) + small satellite Test-Vehicle 4 (TV-4) + small satellite

HAVE BALL, WILL ORBIT

Vanguard Test Vehicle (TV-4) Successfully launched March 17, 1958 Successfully launched March 17, 1958 Stable orbit Stable orbit apogee: 3969 km apogee: 3969 km perigee: 650 km perigee: 650 km Early predicted orbital life: 200 years Early predicted orbital life: 200 years 7-cell mercury battery, two radio transmitters, temperature sensor, six clusters of solar cells 7-cell mercury battery, two radio transmitters, temperature sensor, six clusters of solar cells

Vanguard Test Vehicle (TV-4) March 17, 1958 March 17, 1958 Two radio transmitters Two radio transmitters mW mW mW mW Signal after 1 year Signal after 1 year Transmissions ceased after 75 months Transmissions ceased after 75 months

Vanguard I 3 pounds, 6.4-inch diameter 3 pounds, 6.4-inch diameter Khrushchev called it “the grapefruit satellite” Khrushchev called it “the grapefruit satellite”

Scientific Experiments Radio phase-comparison angle-tracking system Radio phase-comparison angle-tracking system 10mW battery-powered transmitter at 108 MHz, transmitted internal temperature 10mW battery-powered transmitter at 108 MHz, transmitted internal temperature 5mW transmitter at MHz powered by solar cells 5mW transmitter at MHz powered by solar cells inferred north-south asymmetry of earth’s shape inferred north-south asymmetry of earth’s shape described as “pear-shaped” with “stem” at North Pole described as “pear-shaped” with “stem” at North Pole Signal strength used to measure total electron content along line of sight between satellite and selected ground-receiving stations Signal strength used to measure total electron content along line of sight between satellite and selected ground-receiving stations Satellite drag atmospheric density inferred from and sequential positions and tracking data Satellite drag atmospheric density inferred from and sequential positions and tracking data

Tracking Orbits

Scientific and Engineering “Firsts” from Vanguard I First use of rotatable exhaust and gyroscope for roll control First use of rotatable exhaust and gyroscope for roll control first solar-powered satellite first solar-powered satellite first use of miniaturized circuits first use of miniaturized circuits Oldest man-made object in earth orbit Oldest man-made object in earth orbit Observations of orbital motion established that earth is “pear-shaped” Observations of orbital motion established that earth is “pear-shaped”

Current Status of Vanguard I Oldest man-made object in space Oldest man-made object in space Oldest three are Vanguard I, II, and III Oldest three are Vanguard I, II, and III 194,000+ orbits 194,000+ orbits has traveled 6.6 billion miles = 70 au has traveled 6.6 billion miles = 70 au 1 astronomical unit = distance from Earth to Sun 1 astronomical unit = distance from Earth to Sun 70 au is farther than distance from Sun to Pluto 70 au is farther than distance from Sun to Pluto

Vanguard II 17 February 1959, orbital lifetime of 300 years 17 February 1959, orbital lifetime of 300 years 20-inch diameter sphere, 21 pounds 20-inch diameter sphere, 21 pounds First satellite designed to observe and record the cloud cover of the earth First satellite designed to observe and record the cloud cover of the earth forerunner of the “television infrared observation satellites” (TIROS) forerunner of the “television infrared observation satellites” (TIROS)

Vanguard III launched 18 September 1959 into geocentric orbit, orbital life of 300 years launched 18 September 1959 into geocentric orbit, orbital life of 300 years Objectives: measure earth’s magnetic field and solar X-ray radiation Objectives: measure earth’s magnetic field and solar X-ray radiation

Legacy of Vanguard Vanguard I, II, and III are the three oldest man-made objects in earth orbit Vanguard I, II, and III are the three oldest man-made objects in earth orbit NASA was formed around a base of the staff from Project Vanguard NASA was formed around a base of the staff from Project Vanguard Far from being a “failure,” Project Vanguard was a very successful test project that broke ground for the space programs that followed Far from being a “failure,” Project Vanguard was a very successful test project that broke ground for the space programs that followed

Legacy of Minitrack – NAVSPASUR Timing issues led to more careful considerations of relativistic effects Timing issues led to more careful considerations of relativistic effects

Measurement of Time I ntervals Timation Timation

Use of Time- I nterval Measurements to Navigate Navstar – GPS Navstar – GPS Now a multibillion-dollar industry Now a multibillion-dollar industry

Acknowledgements and Thanks John P. Hagen John P. Hagen John Mengel John Mengel Martin Votaw Martin Votaw …

Further Reading Orbiter, Overflight, and the First Satellite; New Light on the Vanguard Decision from “Reconsidering Sputnik, Michael Neufeld Orbiter, Overflight, and the First Satellite; New Light on the Vanguard Decision from “Reconsidering Sputnik, Michael Neufeld How Man-made Satellites Can Affect Our Lives, Joseph Kaplan, National Geographic Magazine, December 1957 How Man-made Satellites Can Affect Our Lives, Joseph Kaplan, National Geographic Magazine, December 1957