Socratic Questioning and Critical Thinking

Thinking is driven by questions. no questions means no understanding

Questions to guide our thinking: What is Socratic questioning? What is critical thinking? What is the relationship between Socratic questioning and critical thinking? How can understanding critical thinking help us improve our ability to question? How can we help students develop Socratic questioning abilities?

Defining Socratic Questioning: Socratic questioning is disciplined questioning that can be used to explore thought in many directions and for many purposes,

to explore complex ideas to get to the truth of things to open up issues and problems to uncover assumptions to analyze concepts to distinguish what we know from what we don’t know, and to follow out logical implications of thought

The key to distinguishing Socratic questioning from questioning per se is that Socratic question is always systematic and deep, focusing on complex concepts, principles, theories, issues or problems. It may or may not be self-directed. And it is usually done orally, rather than in written form.

Teachers, students, or indeed anyone can construct Socratic questions and engage in Socratic dialog. When we use Socratic questioning in teaching, our purpose may be to: probe student thinking determine the extent of students’ knowledge on a given topic, issue or subject model Socratic questioning for them, or help them analyze a concept or line of reasoning.  

In the final analysis we want students to learn the discipline of Socratic questioning, so that they begin to use it in reasoning through complex issues, in understanding and assessing the thinking of others, in following-out the implications of what they, and others think.

Thus, in teaching, our approach should be two-fold: To deeply probe student thinking, to help them begin to distinguish what they know or understand from what they do not know or understand. To foster students’ abilities to question socratically. We want to model intellectual moves that we would want students to emulate and begin to use in everyday life.

Socrates was an early Greek philosopher and teacher (c. 470 – 399 B. C Socrates was an early Greek philosopher and teacher (c. 470 – 399 B.C.E.) who believed that the best way to teach and learn was through disciplined, rigorous questioning.

Socrates thought that people learned best, not by being told what to believe or do, but by being guided through questioning to what made most sense to believe or do. He often used questioning to help people see either that what they said they believed they did not, in fact, believe (because it didn’t square with their behavior), or that what they said they believed was conceptually unsound or illogical.

Socrates was fundamentally concerned, then, with the soundness of reasoning, with getting closer and closer to the truth in any given situation. He was more interested in the process of learning, for him, the questioning process, than in reaching conclusions.

He was at home with complexities, confusion, perplexities, and uncertainties. He was known for the clarity of his thought, the sharpness of his mind, the way in which he opened up questions for debate and discussion, and the seemingly tireless source of energy he expended in expanding his mind – and helping others do the same.

In Athens, in 399 B.C.E., Socrates was accused, indicted, and ultimately put to death for two reasons: 1.  introducing and believing in gods other than those sanctioned by the state. (Though some accused Socrates of atheism, all evidence points in the opposite direction, evidenced, in part, by the fact that Socrates believed in life after death). 2.   corrupting the young (by fostering their intellectual development, and encouraging them to question the status quo).

To understand the philosophy of Socrates, it is useful to consider the question: To what extent was Socrates in fact a threat to the State?

According to the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, p. 482: “there was reason for fearing Socrates as a social force. Where arête [excellence, in terms of how to make the best of oneself and live a rational life], education, and state were fused in one image, an educator critical of received assumptions was a revolutionary.

Socrates not only publicly raised such fundamental questions as ‘What is arête?’ And ‘Who are its teachers?’ But by creating a climate of questioning and doubt, he was suspected by conservative minds of the dangerous game of discomfiting all authority before a circle of impressionable youths and subtracting from the state the stability of tradition.

It was also apparent that the values by which Socrates lived, his indifference to material wealth and prosperity, and his freedom from desire and ambition were themselves a living criticism of all institutions and of politicians who did not seem to know what they were doing or who were compromising their principles.”

It seems clear that Socrates attempted to develop a systematic method of disciplined questioning that could be emulated. By studying the Socratic dialogues, we can explicate the components and processes that Socrates developed and practiced. In fact, if we are to emulate the intellectual skills and dispositions of Socrates, it is important to delineate, as clearly and precisely as we can, the dialectic method he advocated.

The Socratic method, as practiced by Socrates, can be outlined as follows: 1.  The best way to teach is through dialectic reasoning, or a question-and-answer process. This process should be the primary teaching method, so that students practice, for many years, pursuing answers to questions in a disciplined, methodical way. 2.   Socratic dialogs are usually focused on a specific complex concept or question, and exemplify a disciplined form of conceptual analysis.

The Socratic method involves two primary processes - the destructive and the constructive process. In the destructive process, ideas formerly held dear to the “student” are shown to be illogical or otherwise unsound. In other words, the student comes to recognize the flawed nature of his reasoning. In the constructive process, the “student” is encouraged to replace the flawed thinking with logical or justifiable thinking.

4. Socrates often attempted to help the “student” uncover self-deception in his thinking. This provides evidence that Socrates was aware of the self-deceptive nature of human thought. 5. A primary goal is to formulate principles by which to live, principles that emerge out of deep conceptual understandings. 6. The method focuses on deep understanding of concepts through the careful use of analogies intuitive to the answerer.

What is the relationship between Socratic Questioning and critical thinking?

Critical thinking and Socratic questioning both share a common end Critical thinking and Socratic questioning both share a common end. Critical thinking gives one a comprehensive view of how the mind functions (in it’s pursuit of meaning and truth) and Socratic questioning takes advantage of that overview to frame questions essential to the quality of that pursuit.

The goal of critical thinking is to establish an additional level of thinking to our thinking, a powerful inner voice of reason, to monitor, assess, and re-constitute--in a more rational direction--our thinking, feeling, and action. Socratic discussion cultivates that inner voice through an explicit focus on systematic, deep, disciplined questioning.

Thinking is Driven by Questions

Questions define tasks, express problems and delineate issues Questions define tasks, express problems and delineate issues. Answers on the other hand, often signal a full stop in thought. Only when an answer generates a further question does thought continue its life as such.

This is why it is true that only students who have questions are really thinking and learning.

Deep questions drive our thought underneath the surface of things, force us to deal with complexity. Questions of purpose force us to define our task. Questions of information force us to look at our sources of information as well as at the quality of our information. Questions of interpretation force us to examine how we are organizing or giving meaning to information.

Questions of assumption force us to examine what we are taking for granted. Questions of implication force us to follow out where our thinking is going. Questions of point of view force us to examine our point of view and to consider other relevant points of view.

Questions of relevance force us to discriminate what does and what does not bear on a question. Questions of accuracy force us to evaluate and test for truth and correctness. Questions of precision force us to give details and be specific.

Questions of consistency force us to examine our thinking for contradictions. Questions of logic force us to consider how we are putting the whole of our thought together, to make sure that it all adds up and makes sense within a reasonable system of some kind.

Key Questions How can we bring critical thinking into the foundations of teaching? How can we bring critical thinking into everything we do in the classroom efficiently and effectively so that critical thinking becomes an integral part of what we do rather than something we add to all the other stuff we already think we have to do?

Questions Leading to More Questions Why should we bring critical thinking into instruction? What does it add to schooling? What is the relationship between critical thinking and education? What does it mean to be an educated person?

Questions Leading to Still More Questions What intellectual skills should students learn in school? How can we teach those skills? What do I need to know, as a teacher, to foster the development of critical thinking in my students?

And Still More Questions… How can I approach my students as thinkers thinking their way through content? How can I approach students as thinkers so that learn to actively construct ideas in their thinking?

Think About Your Questions Make a list of the questions that are currently guiding your teaching. Then share your list with a partner, and discuss how these questions are guiding your thinking. To what extent are your questions guiding you to foster disciplined thinking in students? To what extent are your questions helping to transform your students’ thinking?

What is Your Philosophy of Education? B Questions C A observes C Questions A B observes A Questions B C observes

Contrasting 4 concepts: In groups of four, discuss: education training indoctrination socialization focusing on the primary differences between these concepts.

What is Education? Make a list of the questions you can ask to explore the question: What is education? Contrast education with indoctrination, training, and socialization as you formulate your questions.

Passing the Socratic baton Person A questions the other three, focusing on the primary question: What is education, in contrast to indoctrination, training, socialization? Each person asks three questions, then the person to the right asks three questions, etc., going deeper and deeper into the primary question.

What is Critical Thinking? B Questions C A observes C Questions A B observes A Questions B C observes

Focusing on Democracy Discuss with a partner your understanding of the concept of democracy. See if you can agree upon the definition. Write out your definition together.

Write Your Understanding of a Primary Concept: Democracy Now following the clarification strategy, write your understanding of democracy. Write the dictionary definition before writing your understanding of it. State, elaborate, exemplify

Democracy The dictionary definition of democracy is… In my own words, I would define democracy in the following way… In other words,… For example…

Definitions of Democracy Webster’s New World Dictionary: Government in which the people hold the ruling power either directly or through a elected representatives. The principle of equality of rights, opportunity, and treatment or the practice of this principle. The common people, especially as the wielders of political power.

Scholastic Children’s Dictionary A way of governing a country in which the people choose their leaders in elections. A Country that has an elected government.

Thorndike-Barnhart Junior Dictionary Government that is run by the people who live under it. In a democracy, the people rule, either directly through meetings that all may attend, or indirectly, through the election of representatives… Treatment of other people as your equals.

Democracy The dictionary definition of democracy is… In my own words, I would define democracy in the following way… In other words,… For example…

Questions that guide our thinking about Democracy Working with a partner, make a list of questions you might use in helping students come to understand the concept of democracy.

Questions about Democracy Does a democracy depend upon the education of the people? How well can a democracy work if the people within the democracy are uneducated or undereducated? To what extent do we have a democracy versus a plutocracy in this country? To what extent are teachers responsible for teaching students to think through important ideas like “democracy?”

Using your list of questions focused on “democracy” In groups of 4 C questions A and B, D observes. A questions C and D, B observes. B questions C and B, A observes. D questions B and A, C observes

Write Your Understanding of an Important Concept You teach Now following the clarification pattern, write your understanding of one of the important concepts you teach. State your understanding. Elaborate your understanding. Exemplify the concept in a real life situation.

Questions that open up a significant concept Make a list of questions you might use in helping students come to understand the concept you have elaborated.

Focusing on your important concept, lead a Socratic dialog: B Questions C A observes C Questions A B observes A Questions B C observes

What is democracy. What is the essence of democracy What is democracy? What is the essence of democracy? What is the purpose of democracy? B Questions C A observes C Questions A B observes A Questions B C observes

A CRITICAL THINKER Considers the Elements of Thought Elements of Points of View Purpose of the Frame of Reference Thinking Perspective Goal, objective Orientation Implications & Questions at Consequences Issue Elements Problem of Assumptions Thought Information Presuppositions, Data, observations, taking for granted facts, experiences Concepts Interpretation Theories, laws, & Inference models, defini - Conclusions, tions , principles solutions Elements wheel

Understanding Key Concepts Through Questions To understand any concept well you must understand its opposite. Take, for example, the concept of cooperation. To understand when we should not cooperate is as important as understanding when we should cooperate, if we are to grasp the conceptual meaning of “cooperation.” Yet too often children are simply told to cooperate, as if cooperation were always desirable. Through a Socratic dialog, we can help students begin to think critically about this concept.

Your Socratic dialogue might look something like this: What does it mean to cooperate? Can you think of a time when you cooperated? Explain. Can any one else think of a time when you cooperated? Should you cooperate with your parents? If so, why? Should you cooperate with your teachers? If so, why? Should you cooperate with your friends? If so, why?

Should you always cooperate? When should you? When should you not? When people want you to go along with something that you think is wrong, should you cooperate? What if people call you names if you refuse to cooperate, should you cooperate then? What would the world be like if no one ever cooperated with each other? What would it be like if everyone always cooperated?

Or you might focus on a concept like “language:” What is language? Can people communicate with each other when they don’t understand each other’s language? What is the purpose of language? What are words? Can we use our words to hurt people? To help people? What would it be like if we didn’t have words? Would life have meaning without words?

Focusing on the concept of “friend:” What does it mean to be a friend? How do you know when someone is your friend? Can someone be nice to you and not be your friend? Can someone tell you things you might not want to hear and still be your friend? Is it possible for someone to not play with you and still be your friend? What is the difference between a friend and a classmate? Can your parent be your friend?

Is it important to have friends? If someone is not your friend, how should you treat her/him? Is it possible to be friendless? How would you feel if you were friendless? Have you ever refused to be someone’s friend when s/he wanted you to be? What is the difference between a friend and an enemy? Is it possible for someone to try to injure you and still be your friend?

Focusing on the concept of “science:” What are the kinds of things that scientists do? Why is science important? What are some of the most basic assumptions scientists ask? What have we figured out using science? What are some things we should be able to figure out using science?

How is science different from other fields of study? What are some of the branches of science? How would our lives be different if we didn’t have science, or if no one thought scientifically? What are some of the limitations of science? Can science solve all our problems?

Webster’s New World Dictionary train: to form by instruction, discipline, or drill, to teach so as to make fit, qualified, or proficient. Training School: a school preparing students for a particular occupation.

Indoctrinate: to imbue with a (usually) partisan or sectarian opinion, point of view, or principle. partisan: a firm adherent to a party, faction, cause or person, especially one exhibiting blind, prejudiced and unreasoning allegiance. sectarian (1): of, relating to or characteristic of a sect, or sectarian, limited in character or scope. sectarian (2): a narrow or bigoted person. sect: a dissenting religious body, especially one regarded as extreme or heretical, a religious denomination, a group adhering to a distinctive doctrine or to a leader

socialize: to adapt to social needs or uses, to fit or train for a social environment. social: of or relating to human society, the interaction of the individual and the group, or the welfare of human beings as members of society. society: an enduring and cooperating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another.

educate: to develop mentally, morally, or aesthetically especially by instruction. mental: of or relating to the total emotional and intellectual response of an individual to his environment. moral: of or relating to principles of right and wrong in behavior. aesthetics: a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art and taste.

Focusing on a key concept Explain in writing one powerful concept you teach. State, elaborate, exemplify Then make a list of questions you can ask in a Socratic dialogue to help students understand the concept and begin to construct it in their thinking.

Focusing on a key concept in your course C Questions A B observes A Questions B C observes