What is an Op-Amp? – The Surface An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is an integrated circuit that uses external voltage to amplify the input through a very high gain. We recognize an Op-Amp as a mass- produced component found in countless electronics. What an Op-Amp looks like to a lay-person What an Op-Amp looks like to an engineer

What is an Op-Amp? – The Layout There are 8 pins in a common Op- Amp, like the 741 which is used in many instructional courses.

What is an Op-Amp? – The Inside The actual count varies, but an Op-Amp contains several Transistors, Resistors, and a few Capacitors and Diodes. For simplicity, an Op-Amp is often depicted as this: Non- Inverting Input Inverting Input Positive Power Supply Negative Power Supply Output - +

History of the Op-Amp – The Dawn Before the Op-Amp: Harold S. Black develops the feedback amplifier for the Western Electric Company ( ) A β InputOutput Forward Gain Feedback

History of the Op-Amp – The Dawn The Vacuum Tube Age The First Op-Amp: (1930 – 1940) Designed by Karl Swartzel for the Bell Labs M9 gun director Uses 3 vacuum tubes, only one input, and ± 350 V to attain a gain of 90 dB Loebe Julie then develops an Op-Amp with two inputs: Inverting and Non-inverting

History of the Op-Amp – The Shift The end of Vacuum Tubes was built up during the 1950’s-1960’s to the advent of solid-state electronics 1.The Transistor 2.The Integrated Circuit 3.The Planar Process

History of the Op-Amp – The Shift 1960s: beginning of the Solid State Op-Amp Example: GAP/R P45 (1961 – 1971) –Runs on ± 15 V, but costs $118 for 1 – 4 The GAP/R PP65 (1962) makes the Op-Amp into a circuit component as a potted module

History of the Op-Amp – The Evolution The solid-state decade saw a proliferation of Op- Amps –Model 121, High Speed FET family, etc. Robert J. Widlar develops the μA702 Monolithic IC Op-Amp (1963) and shortly after the μA709 Fairchild Semiconductor vs. National Semiconductor –National: The LM101 (1967) and then the LM101A (1968) (both by Widlar) –Fairchild: The “famous” μA741 (by Dave Fullager 1968) and then the μA748 (1969)

Mathematics of the Op-Amp The gain of the Op-Amp itself is calculated as: G = V out /(V + – V - ) The maximum output is the power supply voltage When used in a circuit, the gain of the circuit (as opposed to the op-amp component) is: A v = V out /V in

Op-Amp Saturation As mentioned earlier, the maximum output value is the supply voltage, positive and negative. The gain (G) is the slope between saturation points. V out V in Vs-Vs- Vs+Vs+

741 Op-Amp Schematic differential amplifier high-gain amplifier voltage level shifter output stage current mirror

Op-Amp Characteristics Open-loop gain G is typically over 9000 But closed-loop gain is much smaller R in is very large (MΩ or larger) R out is small (75Ω or smaller) Effective output impedance in closed loop is very small

Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics Open-loop gain G is infinite R in is infinite Zero input current R out is zero

Ideal Op-Amp Analysis To analyze an op-amp feedback circuit: Assume no current flows into either input terminal Assume no current flows out of the output terminal Constrain: V + = V -

Inverting Amplifier Analysis virtual ground

Non-Inverting Amplifier Analysis

Op-Amp Buffer Vout = Vin Isolates loading effects A High output impedance B Low input impedance

Op-Amp Differentiator

Op-Amp Integrator

Op-Amp Summing Amplifier

Op-Amp Differential Amplifier If R 1 = R 2 and R f = R g :

Applications of Op-Amps Filters Types: Low pass filter High pass filter Band pass filter Cascading (2 or more filters connected together) R V 0 __ + V cc - V cc - + R1 R1 C Low pass filter Low pass filter Cutoff frequency  Low pass filter transfer function 

Applications of Op-Amps Electrocardiogram (EKG) Amplification –Need to measure difference in voltage from lead 1 and lead 2 –60 Hz interference from electrical equipment

Applications of Op-Amps Simple EKG circuit –Uses differential amplifier to cancel common mode signal and amplify differential mode signal Realistic EKG circuit –Uses two non- inverting amplifiers to first amplify voltage from each lead, followed by differential amplifier –Forms an “instrumentation amplifier”

Strain Gauge Use a Wheatstone bridge to determine the strain of an element by measuring the change in resistance of a strain gauge (No strain) Balanced Bridge R #1 = R #2 (Strain) Unbalanced Bridge R #1 ≠ R #2

Strain Gauge Half-Bridge Arrangement Using KCL at the inverting and non-inverting terminals of the op amp we find that  ε ~ V o = 2ΔR(R f /R 2 ) R + ΔR R f V 0 __ + V cc - V cc - + RfRf V ref R R - ΔR R Op amp used to amplify output from strain gauge

Applications of Op-Amps Piezoelectric Transducer –Used to measure force, pressure, acceleration –Piezoelectric crystal generates an electric charge in response to deformation Use Charge Amplifier –Just an integrator op-amp circuit

Goal is to have V SET = V OUT Remember that V ERROR = V SET – V SENSOR Output Process uses V ERROR from the PID controller to adjust V out such that it is ~V SET P I D Output Process Sensor V ERROR V SET V OUT V SENSOR PID Controller – System Block Diagram

Applications PID Controller – System Circuit Diagram Source: Calculates V ERROR = -(V SET + V SENSOR ) Signal conditioning allows you to introduce a time delay which could account for things like inertia System to control -V SENSOR

Applications PID Controller – PID Controller Circuit Diagram V ERR AdjustChange KpKp RP1, RP2 KiKi RI, CI KdKd RD, CD V ERR PID

Applications of Op-Amps Example of PI Control: Temperature Control Thermal System we wish to automatically control the temperature of: Block Diagram of Control System:

Applications of Op-Amps Voltage Error Circuit: Proportion al-Integral Control Circuit: Example of PI Control: Temperature Control

References Cetinkunt, Sabri. Mechatronics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc., Jung, Walter G. Op Amp Applications Handbook. Analog Devices, Inc., “Operational Amplifier.” “Operational Amplifier Applications.” _applications. _applications

References Rizzoni, G. Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, McGraw Hill, /Labs/ecglab.pdfhttp://web.njit.edu/~joelsd/electronics /Labs/ecglab.pdf