SUCCESSFUL PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES Solid research base is lacking Solid research base is lacking Hundreds of literature prescribe how to develop educational programs: useful for specific or for all professions Hundreds of literature prescribe how to develop educational programs: useful for specific or for all professions Practitioners skeptical about the prescriptive frameworks Practitioners skeptical about the prescriptive frameworks Practice involves personality conflicts, political factors, and resources constraints Practice involves personality conflicts, political factors, and resources constraints

Limited research shows no continuing educators use textbook planning frameworks, even for programs that are ‘successful’ Limited research shows no continuing educators use textbook planning frameworks, even for programs that are ‘successful’ Doesn’t mean practitioners do not think in systematic ways Doesn’t mean practitioners do not think in systematic ways Textbook planning frameworks do not adequately prescribe and describe those systematic processes Textbook planning frameworks do not adequately prescribe and describe those systematic processes Practitioners have personal values, believes and institutional context that influence program development Practitioners have personal values, believes and institutional context that influence program development

Central task for effective practice : 1. Make own framework explicit 2. Analyze its assumptions and principles 3. Alter it when necessary

Which Program Development Framework Should Practitioners Use? Tyler (1949) suggests 4 questions as guide for curriculum development Tyler (1949) suggests 4 questions as guide for curriculum development 1. What educational experiences should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How can these educational purposes be effectively organized 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained Apps (1985) translated the questions into five tasks: 1. Identifying learners’ needs 2. Defining objectives 3. Identifying learning experiences that meet these objectives

4. Organizing learning experiences into an educational plan 5. Evaluating the outcomes of the educational effort in accordance with the objectives Pennington and Green (1976) interviewed 52 CPE program planners in university setting: how planning was done?

Findings: Four major discrepancies between literature and practice 1. Little comprehensive needs assessment – lack of time, expertise, or recourses 2. Available resources were not used to determine program’s objectives 3. The design of instruction was not based on learner characteristics, desired outcomes, time, money, or other resources 4. Comprehensive evaluation was not done

Factors influencing the practices: Factors influencing the practices: Personal values Personal values Environmental constraints Environmental constraints Available resource alternatives Available resource alternatives Other factors Other factors Planners respond to the context Planners respond to the context Planning framework in the literature presented in context-free manner Planning framework in the literature presented in context-free manner Textbook framework can be useful as long as practitioners aware of their limitations Textbook framework can be useful as long as practitioners aware of their limitations

An Overview of Program Development Frameworks Frameworks from Individual Professions Frameworks from Individual Professions Sork (1983) found 22 literature on CPE program planning Sork (1983) found 22 literature on CPE program planning Equal emphasis give to both the activity levels and organizational levels of programming Equal emphasis give to both the activity levels and organizational levels of programming Most planning frameworks were designed for members of a single organization Most planning frameworks were designed for members of a single organization The level of sophistication needed to use the frameworks is relatively low The level of sophistication needed to use the frameworks is relatively low

Most publications emphasize the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’ Most publications emphasize the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’ Planning steps similar with Tyler’s questions Planning steps similar with Tyler’s questions Highly prescriptive in nature little attention to context Highly prescriptive in nature little attention to context Difference emphasis given to the linkage between the educational program and the expected changes in professional practice; practice emphasis more than the framework Difference emphasis given to the linkage between the educational program and the expected changes in professional practice; practice emphasis more than the framework

Cross-Professional Frameworks Suggested by Pennington and Green (1976) from study of six different professions Suggested by Pennington and Green (1976) from study of six different professions Business administration, educational administration, law, teaching, social work, and medicine Business administration, educational administration, law, teaching, social work, and medicine Descriptive rather than prescriptive framework Descriptive rather than prescriptive framework General model comprises a series of tasks and decisions General model comprises a series of tasks and decisions

1 st Cluster – Originating the idea: 1 st Cluster – Originating the idea: Formal need assessments Formal need assessments Requests from a client Requests from a client Availability of project monies Availability of project monies Legislative mandates Legislative mandates Suggestions from campus faculty Suggestions from campus faculty 2 nd Cluster – Developing the idea: 2 nd Cluster – Developing the idea: Informal test of the idea with practitioners Informal test of the idea with practitioners A review of literature A review of literature A market analysis A market analysis

3 rd Cluster – Making a commitment: 3 rd Cluster – Making a commitment: Selecting instructors Selecting instructors Using existing course or develop a new one Using existing course or develop a new one 4 th Cluster – Developing the program: 4 th Cluster – Developing the program: Objectives were determined Objectives were determined Subject matter was developed Subject matter was developed Materials were accumulated Materials were accumulated 5 th Cluster – Teaching the course: 5 th Cluster – Teaching the course: As planned and some flexibility As planned and some flexibility

6 th Cluster – Evaluating the impact: 6 th Cluster – Evaluating the impact: Determination of what to evaluate Determination of what to evaluate Developing instruments Developing instruments Administration of the evaluation Administration of the evaluation According to Pennington & Green program development is a form of administrative decision-making According to Pennington & Green program development is a form of administrative decision-making The decisions were based on contextual factors such as climate, internal and external constraints and resources The decisions were based on contextual factors such as climate, internal and external constraints and resources

Houle’s Triple-Mode Model Focus on strengthen professional performance Focus on strengthen professional performance Planning itself should be part of the educational activity Planning itself should be part of the educational activity Suggests a comprehensive educational process consists of 3 modes of participation: instruction, inquiry, and reinforcement Suggests a comprehensive educational process consists of 3 modes of participation: instruction, inquiry, and reinforcement Originated from several models used by medical profession Originated from several models used by medical profession

Steps in Houle’s Model 1. Developing a list of standards of good practice 2. Setting the ideals of what these standards can accomplish 3. Establishing a floor for what these standards can accomplish 4. All staff are informed about the steps already taken and approve of what has been done 5. Data are collected on current staff performance

6. These measurements of performance are compared with both the ideal and minimally acceptable standards to determine the problems 7. Determine the causes of the differences between what is and what ought to be 8. Educational programs develop to correct the problems 9. Evaluate the changes 10. Further programs are considered if needed

Houle’s model similar to Tyler’s model Houle’s model similar to Tyler’s model First 6 steps are elaborated way of identifying learner’s needs First 6 steps are elaborated way of identifying learner’s needs Setting objectives and identifying and organizing learning experiences are done in steps 7 and 8 Setting objectives and identifying and organizing learning experiences are done in steps 7 and 8 Evaluating the outcomes occurs in steps 9 and 10 Evaluating the outcomes occurs in steps 9 and 10

Practice-Audit Model Developed by Queeney and Smutz (Pennsylvania State University) Developed by Queeney and Smutz (Pennsylvania State University) Based on pharmacy profession Based on pharmacy profession Similar to Houle’s model Similar to Houle’s model Both are practice oriented and similar process are used in carrying out the frameworks Both are practice oriented and similar process are used in carrying out the frameworks Both are prescriptive frameworks Both are prescriptive frameworks

Unique characteristic of this model – its implementation involved a collaboration between a higher education institution and professional associations Unique characteristic of this model – its implementation involved a collaboration between a higher education institution and professional associations Consists of 7-phase process: Consists of 7-phase process: 1. A committee of 6 – 10 members was developed from relevant academic department, state and national associations, and national regulatory agency 2. Developing practice descriptions and then validated by asking practitioners the importance of each task

3. Performance assessment materials were developed and acceptable and unacceptable levels of performance were determined 4. Conducting the practice audit session to gather data on the practice descriptions 5. The participants’ performance was compared to the standards that had been developed in phase 3 – the deficiencies formed the basis for educational program 6. CPE programs were developed 7. Evaluating the changes in practice after 6 months

Program Development as Professional Work Framework or model must be adapted to the context Framework or model must be adapted to the context It is a practice undertaken by CPE educators It is a practice undertaken by CPE educators As a form of professional practice it can be analyzed within the functionalist and critical frameworks As a form of professional practice it can be analyzed within the functionalist and critical frameworks Functionalist – assumes practice problems are well formed and that these problems are solved by the application of scientific knowledge Functionalist – assumes practice problems are well formed and that these problems are solved by the application of scientific knowledge

The goal is to help professionals gain new knowledge, attitudes, or skills The goal is to help professionals gain new knowledge, attitudes, or skills Done by framework where needs are assessed, objectives identified, instruction organized, and outcomes evaluated Done by framework where needs are assessed, objectives identified, instruction organized, and outcomes evaluated Planning frameworks as forms of scientific knowledge if applied will improve practice Planning frameworks as forms of scientific knowledge if applied will improve practice Reality is different so an alternative was proposed Reality is different so an alternative was proposed

Critical viewpoint offers a more useful way to understand program development Critical viewpoint offers a more useful way to understand program development CPE educators regularly confronted with situations that are characterized by uniqueness, uncertainty, or value conflict CPE educators regularly confronted with situations that are characterized by uniqueness, uncertainty, or value conflict They must construct the problem from the situation using the skills of problem-setting They must construct the problem from the situation using the skills of problem-setting The knowledge used comes from repertoire of examples, images, understandings, and actions The knowledge used comes from repertoire of examples, images, understandings, and actions

Professionals’ espoused theories of practice and theories-in-use (Argyris and Schon, 1974) Professionals’ espoused theories of practice and theories-in-use (Argyris and Schon, 1974) Espoused theory – theory of action (what is planned in given situation) Espoused theory – theory of action (what is planned in given situation) Theory-in-use – theory governs educators’ actions; may or may not similar to their espoused theory Theory-in-use – theory governs educators’ actions; may or may not similar to their espoused theory Theory-in-use must be constructed from observing actual behavior Theory-in-use must be constructed from observing actual behavior

All program development frameworks are someone’s espoused theories All program development frameworks are someone’s espoused theories Argyris and Schon argue that professionals must develop their own continuing theory of practice under real-time conditions Argyris and Schon argue that professionals must develop their own continuing theory of practice under real-time conditions CPE educators should make their espoused theories congruent with their theories-in-use which is context-specific which include: CPE educators should make their espoused theories congruent with their theories-in-use which is context-specific which include: personal beliefs and values about learning personal beliefs and values about learning Proper place of the professions in society Proper place of the professions in society Whether they are technically trained Whether they are technically trained

Some theories-in-use are more successful than others Some theories-in-use are more successful than others CPE would become more effective if educators see themselves as practical theorists: CPE would become more effective if educators see themselves as practical theorists: Analyzing their own practice Analyzing their own practice Making explicit their theories-in-use Making explicit their theories-in-use Present actual planning frameworks Present actual planning frameworks