Solutions -__________ are ______________ mixtures made up of two or more ___________; the ________, which __________, and the ________, which does the ___________ solutions homogeneous substances solute dissolves solvent dissolving -generally, the ________ is the substance with _________ and more _________ particles in the __________, while the ________ usually has the _______, less _________ particles of the two substances in the _________ solvent smaller numerous solution solute larger numerous solution -__________ can be ______, _______, or ______, but most often are ________, and ________ __________ are most often ________, since the most common ________ is ______ solutions solids liquids gases liquids liquid solutions aqueous solvent water I. Solvation in Aqueous Solutions -__________ is the process of surrounding _______ particles with ________ particles to form a __________ solvation solute solvent solution -solvation done by ______ is called __________ water hydration

Polar Molecules -covalent molecules which are ___________ in _____ _______ are __________, while molecules that are ____________ in any plane are ______ symmetrical all planes nonpolar Cl asymmetrical polar -__________ in the ______ of a molecule is caused by an _______ distribution of _________ __________, creating an _________ of ________ in the molecule asymmetry shape O uneven valence electrons imbalance charge N -molecules containing only _________ bonds are _________ nonpolar nonpolar H C -molecules containing a ___________ distribution of ______ bonds are _________ symmetrical polar nonpolar -molecules containing a ____________ distribution of ______ bonds are _______ asymmetrical polar polar Cl C C O O H N H

Polar Molecules -_________ is often created by _________ _______ of ________ _________ polarity unshared pairs valence electrons -the relatively _____ attractions between the ________ of covalent compounds are called ________________ _______, the ________ of which are called _________ or _______ ________ weak molecules intermolecular forces weakest dispersion London forces -the ________ ________ of ______ molecules create stronger ____________________ called _______- ________ ________, the most _________ of which are called _________ ______ partial poles polar intermolecular forces dipole dipole forces powerful Hydrogen bonds -_____________ _______ affect the _________ ___________ of _________ __________ like ________ ______, _______ ______, and __________ intermolecular forces physical properties covalent compounds melting point boiling point solubility

Solutions I. Solvation in Aqueous Solutions -the general rule of __________ is _____ __________ _____; that is, partially ________ ______ molecules _________ the fully charged particles of ______ compounds and the partially __________ compounds solubility “Like dissolves like” charged polar dissolve ionic polar covalent

Solutions I. Solvation in Aqueous Solutions A. Factors Affecting Solvation Rate -the __________ _____ is affected by three factors which _________ the rate of ____________ of ________ and _______ particles solvation rate increase collision solute solvent -__________, ___________ the ________ _____ of the ________, and __________ the ___________ of the ________ all ________ the rate of solvation agitation increasing surface area solute increasing temperature solvent increase B. Heat of Solution -if the energy required to overcome the __________ forces between _______ and ________ particles is _______ than the energy _________ during the mixing of the particles, __________ is __________, but __________ is __________ when more energy is _________ than _________ attractive solute solvent greater released solvation endothermic solvation exothermic released required

Solutions II. Solubility -__________ is the ________ amount of ______ that will ________ in a given amount of _______ at a specific ___________ and _________ solubility maximum solute dissolve solvent temperature pressure -__________ solutions contain the __________ amount of dissolved _______ for a given amount of ________ at a given ____________ and ________; ___________ solutions contain less than that, and ____________ solutions contain more than that saturated maximum solute solvent temperature pressure unsaturated supersaturated

Solutions II. Solubility A. Factors Affecting Solubility -__________ varies according to ____________ and _________ solubility temperature pressure -most substances, especially ______ substances, dissolved in _______ solvents, have ______ solubility at ______ temperatures, but ______ have ______ solubilities at _______ temperatures solid liquid higher higher gases lower higher -while ________ has no effect on the solubility of ______ or _______ solutes, solubility of ______ is ________ ____________ to ________ pressure solid liquid gases directly proportional pressure

A. Factors Affecting Solubility Solutions II. Solubility A. Factors Affecting Solubility 1. Henry’s Law -the _________ of a gas ______ _________ with the ________ of the gas above a liquid solubility varies directly pressure S1 P1 ___ ___ S1P2 = S2P1 or = S2 P2 If the solubility of oxygen gas is 0.031 L/1 L H2O at a pressure of 101 kilopascals, what is the solubility of oxygen, in L/1 L H2O, at a pressure of 200 kilopascals? S1 P1 0.031 L/1 L H2O 101 kPa ___ ___ ________________ _______ = = S2 P2 S2 200 kPa S2 = 0.061 L/1 L H2O 8

Solution Concentration I. Percent by Mass What is the percent by mass of a solution containing 20 grams of Sodium Hydrogen carbonate dissolved in 600 grams of water? Mass of solute _____________ Percent by mass = x 100 Mass of solution 20 g _____ Percent by mass = x 100 = 3.2% 620 g What mass, in grams, of Sodium hypochlorite is dissolved in 1500.0 grams of bleach solution that is 3.62% by mass? Mass of solute _____________ Percent by mass = x 100 Mass of solution Mass of solute _____________ 3.62% = x 100 1500.0 g Mass of solute = 54.3 g 9

Solution Concentration II. Percent by Volume What is the percent by volume of Isopropyl alcohol in a solution of rubbing alcohol containing 350 milliliters of Isopropyl alcohol and 150 milliliters of water? Volume of solute _______________ Percent by volume = x 100 Volume of solution 350 mL ______ Percent by volume = x 100 = 70.0% 500 mL What volume, in milliliters, of ethyl alcohol is dissolved in a 355 milliliter can of beer that is 5.0% alcohol by volume? Volume of solute _____________ Percent by volume = x 100 Volume of solution Volume of solute _____________ 5.0% = x 100 355 mL Volume of solute = 18 mL 10

Solution Concentration III. Molarity What is the molarity of an aqueous solution containing 40.0 grams of glucose in 1.5 liters of solution? Moles of solute 0.222 moles _______________ __________ Molarity (M) = M = = 0.15 moles/liter or M Liters of solution 1.5 L 1 mole C6H12O6 40.0 g C6H12O6 x _______________ = 0.222 moles C6H12O6 180.16 g C6H12O6 What mass, in grams, of Hydrogen sulfate must be dissolved in water to make 2.50 liters of a 1.0 M solution of Sulfuric acid? Moles of solute Moles of solute _______________ ____________ Molarity (M) = 1.0 mole/L = = 2.5 moles Liters of solution 2.50 L 98.077 g H2SO4 2.5 moles H2SO4 x _______________ = 250 g H2SO4 or 2.5 x 102 g H2SO4 1 mole H2SO4 11

Solution Concentration IV. Diluting Molar Concentrations What volume, in liters, of a 3.00 M Potassium iodide solution would you use to make 0.500 L of a 1.25 M Potassium iodide solution? M1 3.00 moles/L 0.500 L ___ ___ V2 ___________ _______ = = M2 V1 1.25 moles/L V1 V1 = 0.208 L If you dilute 20.0 milliliters of a 3.5 M nitric acid to make 100.0 milliliters of solution, what is the molarity of the dilute nitric acid solution? M1 ___ ___ V2 3.5 moles/L 100.0 mL ___________ _______ = = M2 V1 M2 20.0 mL M2 = 0.70 M 12

Solution Concentration V. Molality What is the molality of a solution containing 10.0 grams of Sodium sulfate in 1000.0 grams of water? Moles of solute 0.0704 moles _______________ __________ Molality (m) = m = = 0.0704 moles/kg Kilograms of solvent 1.0000 kg 1 mole Na2SO4 10.0 g Na2SO4 x _______________ = 0.0704 moles Na2SO4 142.041 g Na2SO4 What mass, in grams, of Naphthalene (C10H8) is dissolved in a 0.468 m solution containing 500.0 grams of toluene as the solvent? Moles of solute Moles of solute _______________ ____________ Molality (m) = 0.468 mole/kg = = 0.234 moles Kilograms of solvent 0.5000 kg 128.17 g C10H8 0.234 mole C10H8 x _______________ = 30.0 g C10H8 1 mole C10H8 13

Solution Concentration VI. Mole Fraction What is the mole fraction of Sodium hydroxide in an aqueous solution that contains 22.8 % Sodium hydroxide by mass? nA nB ________ ________ XA = XB = nA + nB nA + nB nNaOH ___________ 1 mole NaOH XNaOH = 22.8 g NaOH x ____________ = 0.570 moles NaOH nNaOH + n H2O 39.997 g NaOH 0.570 moles NaOH _______________________________ XNaOH = 0.570 moles NaOH + 4.29 moles H2O XNaOH = 0.117 nH2O 1 mole H2O ___________ 77.2 g H2O x ___________ = 4.29 mole H2O XH2O = nNaOH + n H2O 18.015 g H2O 4.29 moles H2O _______________________________ XH2O = 0.570 moles NaOH + 4.29 moles H2O XH2O = 0.883 14

Colligative Properties of Solutions -physical properties of solutions that are affected by the _______, but not the _________ of particles number identity I. Vapor Pressure Lowering -______ _________ is the ________ exerted by the particles of a ________ that have escaped the _________ surface and entered into the ________ state above the liquid vapor pressure pressure solvent liquid’s gaseous -adding ________ particles to solution decreases the number of _______ particles at the surface, so __________ the ________ ______________ __________ the ______ ________, providing the _______ particles are ____________ solute solvent increasing solute concentration decreases vapor pressure solute non-volatile 15

Colligative Properties of Solutions II. Boiling Point Elevation -a ________ boils when the ______ _________ equals ____________ _________, which explains why, at _______ __________, where the ___________ _________ is ______, boiling point temperature is ______, so to cook food by boiling requires _____ time liquid vapor pressure atmospheric pressure high altitudes atmospheric pressure lower lower more -adding ________ particles to solution _______ ______ _________ at the same temperature, so the temperature must be ___________ to raise the _____ _________ enough to equal __________ _________ solute lowers vapor pressure higher vapor pressure atmospheric pressure 16

Colligative Properties of Solutions III. Freezing Point Depression -at a solvent’s _________ ______, the ________ _______ of the particles is no longer enough to resist the _________ of the _________ _______________ ________ freezing point kinetic energy attraction solvent’s intermolecular forces -adding _______ to the solvent allows the solution to exist as a ________ at a ______ temperature because the _______ particles interfere with the ___________ of the ______________ ________, which explains why adding _____- _____ ______ (____) to snow _____ its _________ ______ temperature, allowing it to exist as a ________ at a ______ temperature solute liquid lower solute attraction intermolecular forces snow melt salt KCl lowers freezing point liquid lower 17

Colligative Properties of Solutions III. Freezing Point Depression -so adding _________ _______, or ___________ to water in your __________ both ________ the ________ ______ and _______ the ________ ______ of water ethylene glycol antifreeze radiator lowers freezing point raises boiling point IV. Osmotic Pressure -________ is the movement of ______ molecules from an area of _______ concentration to an area of ______ concentration, especially across a ______________ __________ like a _____ __________ osmosis water higher lower semipermeable membrane cell membrane -adding _______ to a solvent lowers the ____________ of the _______, causing water to move across the _________ towards the ______ concentration of water, and the addition of water _________ the ________ solute concentration solvent membrane lower increases pressure 18