Finite element model of an insect wing and results of virtual bending experiments. Finite element model of an insect wing and results of virtual bending.

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Finite element model of an insect wing and results of virtual bending experiments. Finite element model of an insect wing and results of virtual bending experiments. (A) Finite element model (FEM) based on the forewing of Manduca sexta, with leading edge vein elements in pink, other vein elements in green and membrane elements in yellow. (B) FEM wing flexural stiffness EI (calculated from applied force and wing displacement) versus material stiffness E of vein elements. In all simulations, the material stiffness of the membrane elements was 1×109 Nm-2. For results shown in green, the material stiffness of all vein elements was increased; for results shown in pink, the material stiffness of only leading edge vein elements was increased (while other vein elements remained at 1×109 Nm-2). Filled symbols, spanwise EI; open symbols, chordwise EI. S. A. Combes, and T. L. Daniel J Exp Biol 2003;206:2979-2987 © The Company of Biologists Limited 2003