Parental Predictors of Adolescent Substance Use and Rule-Breaking Behavior Korey F. Beckwith & David E. Szwedo James Madison University Introduction Measures Attachment of Child to Parent (age 16) Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment was administered to the teens about their parents. Parental Control (age 16) Assessed using the Childhood Report of Parenting Behavior that asked the teen about parents’ behaviors. Parental Supportiveness (age 16) The Expression of Emotions scale was administered to parents about their behaviors toward their child. Teen Self-Esteem (age 18) The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents was used to measure teens’ self-worth based on the teens’ self-report. Peer Acceptance (age 18) The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents was used to measure teen’s perception of social acceptance based on self-report. Substance Abuse (age 22) To measure how much the participants used alcohol and soft drugs, namely marijuana, and the problems caused by them, they were administered the Alcohol and Drug Questionnaire. Rule-Breaking Behavior (age 22) Assessed using the minor delinquency scale from the Problem Behavior Inventory, which is a self-report of frequency of criminal acts. Parents’ behavior toward their children is a significant contributing factor to the substance abuse and rule-breaking behavior problems of adolescents. Research has shown that peer influence and self-esteem also have a significant influence on adolescents. Parental factors that had a high positive correlation with adolescent self-esteem also had a high negative correlation with risky behaviors (Parker & Benson, 2004). Researchers have analyzed how levels of parental control are associated with adolescent substance abuse and rule-breaking behavior. Greater parental monitoring was not only correlated with less substance abuse, but also with less risky sexual behavior by adolescents (Rai et al., 2003). Regardless of how closely a parent monitors a child, how supportive and invested in their life children feel their parents are could have a significant impact on their child’s behavior. Regular parental discussion with children predicts better academic achievement and lower likelihood of kids misbehaving in school (McNeal, 2001). A secure attachment with a parent leads to a child developing and adjusting better to the world (Van der Vorst et al., 2006). Not only does negative view of self contribute to insecure attachment, but also fear of not being accepted or loved (Kassel et al., 2007). The purpose of this study is further examine how parental behavior and relationships with their children in adolescence contributes to their children’s substance abuse and rule-breaking behavior in young adulthood. Figure 1 Figure 2 Figures 1. & 2. Interactions between parental control and expression of affection with self worth and social acceptance predicting frequency of being drunk and minor delinquency acts. Individuals with parents who had firmer control got drunk less when they also had high self worth. Additionally, lower levels of expression were found to be associated with more delinquency acts when the youth had low social acceptance than high social acceptance. Results Correlations between primary variables are presented in Table 1 below. Regression equations examined parental control, parental supportiveness, and teen attachment to parent as predictors of teens’ later substance use and rule-breaking behavior, controlling for gender and family household income. Correlational analyses revealed several positive associations between total attachment of the youth to mom at age 16 and how often the youth drank alcohol and engaged in rule breaking behavior at age 22. There were also correlations between children who perceived their parents to use firm control at age 16 were found to drink more alcohol at age 22. Interactions were found between the primary predictor variables and self-esteem and peer acceptance predicting substance use and rule-breaking behavior (see Figures 1-4). Figure 3 Figure 4 Figures 3. & 4. Interactions between expression of affection with social acceptance and self worth predicting problems due to alcohol. High levels of expression of affection paired with high peer acceptance is associated with less problems due to alcohol consumption. Likewise, high levels of expression of affection paired with high self worth was associated with fewer problems due to alcohol consumption. Hypotheses Greater parental control in adolescence will predict greater substance use and rule-breaking behavior in young adulthood. Greater parental supportiveness in adolescence will predict lower substance use and rule breaking behavior in young adulthood. More secure parental attachment in adolescence will predict lower substance use and rule breaking behavior in young adulthood. Associations between parental control and these outcomes will be moderated by self-esteem and peer acceptance. It is hypothesized that greater self-esteem and peer acceptance will predict less substance use and rule-breaking behavior for youth with highly controlling parents, youth with lower self-esteem, and youth with insecure attachment styles. Discussion Teens who have high self-esteem are less likely to get drunk or face consequences due to substance use than are teens who have low self-esteem. This is true when the teen’s parents are more controlling and more affectionate. More controlling parenting being associated with less substance use is opposite of what was predicted. However, a more controlling and affectionate parent may show more care about the teen’s life in general, contributing to greater self-esteem. High social acceptance was found to be associated with less problems due to substance use in young adulthood when a parent was highly affectionate in adolescence. Teens who have highly affectionate parents, then, may also have a social advantage that allows them to feel like they do not have to drink to fit in. On the other hand, teens with high social acceptance and high expression of affection from their mom were found to have a higher likelihood of engaging in acts of minor delinquency. Thus, the relationship between peer acceptance and drinking versus rule-breaking behavior needs to be further examined. Additionally, the importance of popularity status should be taken into account. Table 1. Univariate statistics and inter-correlations between primary constructs   Mean (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Gender 47% male - 2. Income 43,618 (22,420) -.11 Total Attachment with mom (16) 98.95 (17.23) .21** .03 Mom’s Firm vs. Lax Control (16) 19.45 (4.29) -.04 .18* -.30*** Mom’s Total Expressive Affection (16) 31.87 (10.99) .12 .23** 6. Teen’s Self-Esteem (18) 16.85 (2.84) .02 .06 .49*** -.14 -.05 Teen’s Social Acceptance (18) 13.45 (2.53) -.10 .001 .31*** .04 -.07 .65*** Total Problems due to Alcohol and Drugs (22) 3.17 (3.42) .07 -.13 -.12 9. How Often Drunk (22) 7.70 (7.92) -.20** .19* -.24** .20* -.01 -.21* .45*** Sum of Minor Delinquency Acts (22) 9.92 (3.07) -.15* .16* -.09 .60*** .46*** Method Participants N = 184 Gender Race/ethnicity Income 86 males 107 Caucasian Median = $40,000 - $59,000 98 females 53 African American 24 Mixed/Other Note. * p ≤ .05, ** p ≤ .01, *** p ≤ .001