1. Longitudinal Links between Neighborhood Problems, Collective Efficacy, and Adolescents’ Academic and Socioemotional Outcomes Shay M. Galto, Danielle M. Baran, Laura D. Pittman Time 1 Independent Variables Externalizing Behaviors Internalizing Behaviors Social Competence Math Achievement Reading Achievement Child’s age-.04-.10.04-.18**-.07 Child’s sex.08-.01-.03.01-.13* Mothers’ Age-.09-.10.03.09.04 Mother Earned H.S. Diploma-.10.00.15**.17* Mothers Singe Parent Status.18**.01-.03-.08-.01 Race/Ethnicity (Control group = Hispanic American) African American.08-.04-.05-.22**-.17* White/other.12*.13*.01.07 Income-to-Needs Ratio.04.05.02 -.07 Collective Efficacy-.01.03-.12-.00-.06 Neighborhood Problems.18*.17*-.14*-.11*-.14* F Ratio3.86**2.38**.756.74**5.44** R2R2.09.06.03.16.12 Table 1: OLS Regressions Predicting Socioemotional and Academic Outcomes at Time 2 Introduction The influence of neighborhoods on the development of adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors has been of recent interest, especially when considering those growing up in urban poverty (e.g., Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2003; Moren-Cross, et al., 2006). Neighborhood collective efficacy has been associated with more positive adolescent outcomes (e.g., Sampson et al, 1997). Adolescents who live in neighborhoods with higher crime rates display a variety of negative outcomes including delinquency and dropping out of high school (Crouch et al., 2000). Much of this research has focused on problem behaviors, while few have considered the influence of neighborhood factors on positive outcomes like social competence and academic achievement. The purpose of this study is to examine longitudinally the link between perceived collective efficacy and neighborhood problems to young adolescents’ socio-emotional, and academic outcomes among a low-income, urban sample. Method and Procedures Participants: 994 disadvantaged women and young adolescents (10-14 years of age) from the Welfare, Children, and Families study. Women were the primary caregiver of the children. Data were collected at two time periods, first in 1999 with a follow up in 2001. 97% were below two times the poverty line Measures: Mothers reported on neighborhood problems using an 11- item measure assessing noncriminal and criminal activities as well as signs of the breakdown of social order in the neighborhood. Mothers reported on their perceptions of collective efficacy using a 9-item scale based on Sampson’s (1997) measure. The Child Behavior Checklist was used to for the mothers to report children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Achenbach, 1991). Mathematical and reading achievement was assessed using the Letter-Word Identification and Applied Problems subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery - Revised (Woodcock & Mather, 1989, 1990). Finally, mothers responded to six items from the Positive Behaviors Scale (Quint, Bos, & Polit, 1997), which assessed their children’s social competence. Data Analysis: Ordinary least square regressions were run predicting each of the Time 2 adolescent outcome variables. Time 1 collective efficacy and neighborhood problems were entered into the equation after controlling for several demographic variables (e.g., child age, gender, and race/ethnicity; maternal age, education, and marital status; and family income-to-needs ratio). Interaction terms were added to the regression model to test for whether gender moderated the links between neighborhood factors and adolescent outcomes. Time 1 Descriptive Statistics Results Collective efficacy was correlated with children’s externalizing behaviors and math achievement at Time 2 (r = -.07 &.12, p <. 05), but these association were no longer significant when neighborhood problems was considered simultaneously. Neighborhood problems at Time 1 were positively associated with externalizing and internalizing behaviors as well as negatively associated with positive social behaviors and math and reading achievement at Time 2. The link between neighborhood problems and both social competence and reading achievement was moderated by gender, where there was a negative link to both among females, but not among males. The finding that children who reside in more violent neighborhoods will have high levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors is consistent with the findings of previously conducted studies (Leventhal et al., 2000; Moren-Cross et al., 2006; Winslow & Shaw, 2007). Being a longitudinal study, the significance of these results demonstrates that neighborhood problems can predict externalizing behaviors overtime. Discussion Many studies have examined the relationship between neighborhoods and externalizing behaviors, this study is unique in that it studies other relationships, such as the relationship between neighborhoods and social behaviors as well as reading, and math achievement. It has been theorized that males who reside in neighborhoods with more problems were more likely to display negative behaviors. This study shows the opposite, that females are more likely to display negative behaviors if residing in an area with high problem behaviors. Limitations of this study include that all questionnaires were self- reports by the mothers of the children. In addition, the way neighborhood influences are conceptualized could be conceptualized in a different way (e.g., aggregate levels). Other research may want to collect data not only from the parents but also from other significant adults in the child’s life such as their school teachers, childcare workers and friends of the family. Future research may want to examine collective efficacy on an aggregate level. References Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on children and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 309-337. Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003a). Children and youth in neighborhood contexts. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 27-31. Moren-Cross J.L., Wright D.R., LaGory M., & Lanzi R.G. (2006). Perceived neighborhood characteristics and problem behavior among disadvantaged children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 36, 273-294. Sampson, R.J., Raudenbush, S.W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhood and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science Magazine, 227, 918-924. Winslow, E. B., & Shaw, D. S. (2007). Impact of neighborhood disadvantage on overt behavior problems during early childhood. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 207-219. Woodcock, R. W., & Mather, N. (1989). WoodcockJohnson-Revised Tests of Achievement: Examiner's Manual. In R. W. Woodcock & M. B. Johnson, Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery- Revised. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing. Woodcock, R. W., & Muñoz-Sandoval, A. F. (1996). Batería Woodcock-Muñoz: Pruebas de aprovechamiento-Revisada. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing. Quint, J. C., Bos, J. M., & Polit, D. E. (1997). New Chance: Final Report on a Comprehensive Program for Young Mothers in Poverty and Their Children. New York: MDRC. VariablesMSDRange Child’s age in years11.961.469 - 15 Caregiver’s age38.448.518 – 74 Income to Needs Ratio0.880.510-3.4 Years in neighborhood9.3510.27.01 - 60 Neighborhood problems20.206.0011 - 33 Neighborhood Collective efficacy26.699.499 – 45 Child Externalizing Behaviors-0.070.88-1.19-4.04 Child Internalizing Behaviors-0.040.94-1.17-4.69 Social Competence4.020.701-5 Math Achievement98.1016.2914-174 Reading Achievement101.7721.2625-182 Sample: Children were: 43% African American; 47% Hispanic; 10% White or Other 50% male; 50% female Mothers were: 80% single; 20% married or cohabiting 62% high school degree; 38% no high school degree Figure 2. Interaction between gender and the neighborhood problems predicting Time 2 Reading Achievement Figure 1. Interaction between gender and the neighborhood problems predicting Time 2 Positive Behaviors