A Multi-disciplinary Perspective on Decision-making and Creativity: Using the Diversity of Truth-seeking and Sense-making to Advantage in Organizational Contexts Wayne Smith, Ph.D. Department of Management CSU Northridge Updated: Thursday, April 04, 2019

7 – Research/Methodological

Research/Methodological Use of Secondary Data is convenient, but potentially less useful Primary Data collection is definitely less convenient, but potentially very useful

Research/Methodological Survey quantitative vs. qualitative Evaluate numbers or examine texts multiple choice vs. “open ended” face-to-face vs. non-face-to-face Direct Observation Passive Field Work “Experimentation” is almost always out of the question

Research/Methodological Perspectives Positivist Interpretivist Critical Learning to see causal relations Learning to see what isn’t in the data

Differences between Theory & Ideology Conditional, negotiated understanding Offers absolute certainty Incomplete; recognizes uncertainty Has “all the answers” Growing, open, unfolding, expanding Fixed, closed, finished Welcomes tests, positive and negative evidence Avoids tests and findings Changes based on evidence Blind to opposing evidence Detached, disconnected, moral stand Locked into specific moral beliefs Neutral; considers all sides Highly partial Strongly seeks logical consistency, congruity Has contradictions and inconsistencies Transcends/crosses social positions Rooted in specific position

How Our Research Models Work In English, Predicted value = estimated value + error In Math, Ῡ = x + E E = error—1) systematic error and 2) bias Use statistical techniques for 1) Use judgment for 2) Let’s leave, in general, the characterization of the systematic error (random chance) to professionals. As managers, let’s try to characterize the unsystematic error (bias), so the professionals (and other managers) don’t miss them.

Threats to Internal Validity (especially surveys) Selection Bias (by far, the biggest issue in practical life) …is the threat that research participants will not form equivalent groups. History Bias …is the threat that an event unrelated to the treatment will occur during the experiment and influence the dependent variable. Maturation Bias …is the threat that some biological, psychological, or emotional process within the subjects and separate from the treatment will change over time. Testing Bias Sometimes, a pre-test (pilot) influences the actual (real) test. Instrumentation Bias …occurs when the instrument changes during the administration of the instrument.

Threats to Internal Validity (especially surveys) Mortality …arises when some subjects do not continue throughout the experiment. Diffusion of Treatment (Contamination) …the threat the research participants in different groups will communicate with each other and learn about the other’s treatment. Compensatory Behavior …when some experiments provide something of value to one group, but not to another. Experimenter Expectancy …occurs when subtle, inadvertent changes by the interviewer alter the response by one or more respondents. One last thing—Threats to External Validity does the survey instrument actually reflect reality (and all of it)? Are we absolutely sure that the survey doesn’t change the reality?

As a manager, what do we want to do with the research findings? That is, what inferences do we want to make from research? Let’s say we were giving a test to a job applicant… Scoring, in which scoring rules are used to generate scores that are most appropriate for performances on each task in the test. Generalization extends the interpretation from observed scores across all tasks on a particular test to the domain score; the score expected if the examinee were administered the entire universe of potential tasks allowed by the testing procedure. Extrapolation extends the interpretation to a level of examinee ability in the domain of interest, with implications for expected future performance on domain-relevant tasks that might be beyond the scope of tasks allowed by the testing procedure. Decision uses estimates of examinee ability to make decisions about examinees, such as whether the examinee is competent to practice a profession, would be appropriate for a particular academic institution, or would benefit from a certain academic course.

Sources Neuman, W. L., (2003), Social Research Methods: Quantitative and Quantitative Approaches, Pearson Education